WAEC SSCE - Agricultural Science - 1991

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The length of the oestrus cycle in goats can vary depending on the breed and individual animal. However, on average, the oestrus cycle of a goat lasts between 18 to 21 days. During this cycle, a goat is receptive to mating and may exhibit certain behaviors such as vocalization, restlessness, and a decrease in appetite. It's important to note that the oestrus cycle can also be influenced by various factors such as seasonality, nutrition, and age.

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The correct answer is "rocks". The different types of soil are determined by the relative amounts of air, water, minerals, and organic matter. Soil is made up of varying proportions of these components, and the type of soil is determined by the relative amount of each component. Rocks, although they may be present in soil, do not determine the type of soil.

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The act of parturition in rabbits is called "kindling". This term is used specifically for the birthing process in rabbits. It refers to the process of giving birth to a litter of baby rabbits, also known as kits. The female rabbit, also called a doe, usually gives birth to a litter of 4-12 kits, depending on the breed and size of the doe. The process of kindling usually takes place in a nest box or a designated area prepared by the rabbit owner.

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The crop that is not correctly grouped with its industrial product is orange-margarine. Oranges are not commonly used as a raw material in the production of margarine. Margarine is typically made from vegetable oils such as soybean oil, canola oil, and palm oil. Cocoa is used to make chocolate, rubber is used to make boots, coconut is used to produce oil, and cotton is used to produce textiles.

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Forages that are cut fresh and preserved in a silo or pit are referred to as "silage." Silage is a type of livestock feed made from grass, corn, or other crops that have been cut and stored in airtight conditions, allowing fermentation to occur. This method of preservation helps to retain the nutritional quality of the forage and provides a source of feed for livestock during times when pasture is not available or during the winter months.

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Poor management practices can cause disease in a fish pond. This can include overfeeding the fish, not maintaining good water quality, and not removing dead or sick fish from the pond. When the water quality deteriorates, harmful bacteria and parasites can grow and spread, causing disease in the fish. Overfeeding can also lead to excess waste and uneaten food in the pond, which can further degrade water quality and create a breeding ground for disease. Mixed stocking, liming, harvesting, and fertilization do not necessarily cause disease in a fish pond. Mixed stocking can actually be beneficial for a pond, as different species can complement each other and help control pests. Liming is used to adjust the pH level of the water and can improve water quality. Harvesting is necessary to maintain the right population density of fish in the pond. Fertilization is also important for promoting the growth of phytoplankton, which is a vital food source for fish. However, if these practices are not done correctly or in the right amounts, they could potentially lead to problems in the pond.

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Temperature is an important factor to monitor in fish ponds because it affects the metabolic processes in fish. As the temperature of the water changes, the fish's metabolism will also change. This can impact their growth, feeding rate, and overall health. Fluctuations in temperature can also impact fish reproduction. Additionally, temperature affects how fish react to other organisms in the water and can reduce the effectiveness of natural processes that break down decaying materials in the pond. Therefore, monitoring and maintaining the temperature in fish ponds is crucial for promoting the health and productivity of the fish.

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Among the given options, the best control measure for rinderpest disease in cattle is vaccination. Rinderpest is a highly contagious viral disease that affects cattle, buffalo, and other cloven-hoofed animals. It spreads rapidly through direct contact with infected animals or contaminated objects, and can cause significant economic losses and even death in affected livestock. Vaccination is the most effective and practical way to prevent rinderpest disease in cattle. It involves administering a vaccine that contains a weakened or inactivated form of the virus to stimulate the animal's immune system to produce antibodies against the disease. These antibodies provide protection against future infections and prevent the spread of the virus in the herd. Sanitation, isolation, use of antibiotics, and eradication of infected stock can also help control the spread of rinderpest disease, but they are not as effective as vaccination. Sanitation measures such as cleaning and disinfecting animal housing and equipment can reduce the risk of transmission, but they do not provide long-term protection. Isolation can help prevent the spread of the disease, but it is not practical for large herds of cattle. Antibiotics are not effective against viruses, so they cannot be used to treat rinderpest disease. Eradication of infected stock can help prevent the spread of the disease, but it is costly and can lead to significant economic losses. In conclusion, vaccination is the best control measure for rinderpest disease in cattle because it provides long-term protection against the disease and is cost-effective. Vaccination programs can significantly reduce the incidence and impact of rinderpest disease in cattle and other cloven-hoofed animals.

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The major cause of spoilage in fresh fish is bacterial attack. When fish dies, bacteria present in the fish's digestive system start to break down the fish's protein into simpler compounds. If the fish is not properly preserved or refrigerated, these bacteria will multiply quickly, causing the fish to spoil. Signs of bacterial spoilage include slimy texture, off odor, and discolored flesh. Therefore, proper storage and preservation techniques such as refrigeration, drying, smoking, or salting can help to prevent bacterial growth and prolong the shelf life of fresh fish.

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The question is asking to identify the climate factors that affect agricultural production in Nigeria, but one of the options is not a climate factor. Therefore, the answer is "topography" because it is not a climate factor, but rather a physical feature of the land. The other options listed, including temperature, rainfall, relative humidity, and sunlight, are all climate factors that can affect agricultural production.

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The daily management routines in poultry farming include egg collection, record keeping, water and feed provision, and health care. However, debeaking is not one of the daily routines in poultry farming. Debeaking is a management practice that involves removing a portion of the chicken's beak to reduce pecking and cannibalism among birds. It is usually done at a young age, and it is not a daily routine. Rather, it is done periodically or as needed to address behavioral issues within the flock. In summary, egg collection, record keeping, water and feed provision, and health care are the essential daily management routines in poultry farming, while debeaking is a periodic or as-needed management practice.

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The most important soil micro-organisms concerned with decay and nutrient recycling are bacteria and fungi. These micro-organisms play a vital role in breaking down organic matter such as dead plant and animal material into simpler forms, releasing important nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur back into the soil. Bacteria are particularly important in the early stages of decay, breaking down complex organic compounds into simpler forms that can be taken up by other organisms, while fungi play a crucial role in breaking down tougher materials like cellulose and lignin. Together, these micro-organisms help to maintain the fertility of the soil and support the growth of plants.

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The reason for planting trees that is not listed among the options provided is "increasing output of mineral oil". This is because the planting of trees does not have a direct correlation to the production of mineral oil. In fact, trees are not a source of mineral oil at all. Instead, they are important for controlling erosion, increasing soil fertility, preventing desert encroachment, and reducing the effects of environmental pollution. Trees absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, which helps to mitigate the effects of climate change. Trees also provide habitat for wildlife, produce oxygen, and have aesthetic value. Therefore, it is important for governments to encourage the planting of trees for a variety of environmental and economic reasons, but not to increase the output of mineral oil.

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A net worth statement is a financial statement that shows the value of an individual or organization's assets minus its liabilities. It is a summary of a person's financial position at a specific point in time. It is also known as a balance sheet and is used to track and monitor one's financial progress.

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The causal organism of damping-off disease of okra is a fungus. Damping-off is a common fungal disease that affects the germinating seeds and young seedlings of many plants, including okra. The fungus attacks the base of the stem, causing it to rot and the seedling to wilt and collapse. The disease is favored by cool, wet conditions and can be prevented by using well-draining soil, avoiding over-watering, and maintaining good air circulation around the plants. Fungal diseases can often be controlled with fungicides, but prevention is the best approach.

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The correct activity about agricultural extension agents is "educating farmers on the use of improved inputs and techniques in agriculture." Agricultural extension agents are individuals who work directly with farmers to help them improve their farming practices and increase their crop yields. They do this by providing farmers with information about the latest research findings, improved agricultural techniques, and new technologies. Agricultural extension agents also help farmers to identify and access improved inputs such as seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides. While teaching farmers the management of exotic breeds of animals and crops, training school leavers to become professional farmers, encouraging graduates to take up agriculture as a profession, and understudying the researchers and recording their findings are all important activities in agriculture, they are not specific to the role of agricultural extension agents. Agricultural extension agents are primarily focused on providing technical assistance and education to farmers, with the aim of improving their agricultural practices and increasing their yields.

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Maize does not require a nursery. Maize is a crop that can be directly sown into the field without the need for a nursery. The seeds are planted at the desired spacing and depth directly into the soil. Maize is a hardy crop that can tolerate a range of soil conditions and weather patterns, making it an easy crop to grow for many farmers. In contrast, crops like rice, tobacco, tomato, and oil palm require a nursery. A nursery is a protected area where seedlings are grown before they are transplanted into the field. This helps ensure that the seedlings are strong and healthy before being exposed to the harsher conditions of the field. The seedlings are grown in ideal conditions that are carefully controlled, such as temperature, humidity, and sunlight, which helps promote healthy growth and development. Once the seedlings have grown to a suitable size, they are transplanted into the field.

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The factor that does not bring about soil formation is "sunshine." While sunlight is important for plant growth, it is not a direct factor in the formation of soil. The four primary factors that contribute to soil formation are climate, time, parent material, and topography. Climate affects soil formation through the amount and distribution of precipitation, temperature, and wind patterns. Time allows for weathering processes to take place and for soil to develop. Parent material refers to the underlying rock or sediment that contributes to the soil's composition. Topography influences soil formation through factors such as slope, drainage, and erosion.

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Crop improvement programmes aim to develop new crop varieties with desirable traits, such as disease resistance, high yield potential, and adaptation to different environmental conditions. These traits improve the productivity and profitability of crop production. However, the objective is not to produce crops resistant to all pests, as that is not currently possible due to the complexity of pest populations and their interactions with crops. Therefore, the option "crops resistant to all pests" is the correct answer to the question.

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Overgrazing is not a method of improving rangeland. In fact, it is a harmful practice that leads to the degradation of rangeland. Overgrazing occurs when too many animals are allowed to graze on a particular area of land for an extended period of time, without giving the plants enough time to recover. This leads to the depletion of vegetation, soil erosion, and other negative impacts on the ecosystem. On the other hand, controlled stocking, rotational grazing, use of fertilizers, and introduction of legumes are all methods that can be used to improve rangeland. Controlled stocking involves managing the number of animals that graze on a particular area of land to prevent overgrazing. Rotational grazing involves moving animals from one area of land to another to give the plants time to recover. The use of fertilizers can provide essential nutrients to the soil, while the introduction of legumes can increase the diversity of plant species and improve soil health. Overall, overgrazing is not a viable method for improving rangeland, and can have serious negative impacts on the environment.

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The annual burning of forest areas is not a good practice and it does not encourage afforestation, regeneration or selective exploitation of the forest. Instead, it can lead to deforestation, which is the permanent destruction of forests, and cause harm to the environment and wildlife. The burning can also release harmful greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, contributing to climate change. Taungya farming, which involves planting crops among trees, can be a sustainable alternative to burning and can help maintain forest cover.

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Poor management practices may cause disease in a fish pond. This may include overfeeding, overcrowding, inadequate water quality monitoring, and poor sanitation practices. These factors can create an environment that is conducive to the growth and spread of harmful bacteria and parasites, which can cause disease in the fish. The other options listed may have different effects on a fish pond. Mixed stocking, for example, may help to control certain types of pests, while liming can help to adjust the pH levels in the water. Harvesting and fertilization are management practices that are necessary for the success of the fish farm, but they do not directly cause disease.

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The commonest method of vegetative propagation is cutting. Cutting is the process of taking a part of the stem or root from a parent plant and then planting it in soil or water to grow a new plant. This method is widely used because it is simple, inexpensive, and can be done with many types of plants. It also allows the new plant to be identical to the parent plant in terms of its genetic makeup, which can be important for maintaining desirable traits. Layering is another method of vegetative propagation where a stem is bent down to the soil and a new plant develops from the node that touches the soil. Budding involves grafting a bud from one plant onto the stem of another. Grafting involves joining two different plants together so that they grow as one, and tillering is a method used for propagating grasses and some other plants where new shoots arise from the base of the parent plant. However, these methods are not as common as cutting.

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The sentence is saying that basal feeds have a high proportion of easily digestible nutrients. It goes on to specify that the type of nutrient that is easily digestible is not mentioned, but it suggests that basal feeds may contain a high proportion of either carbohydrates, proteins, or fats that can be easily broken down by the animal's digestive system. Out of the options given, the most likely answer is "carbohydrates" since these are the primary source of energy in most animal diets and are often found in high quantities in basal feeds.

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The bacterial blight of cotton is also known as "black arm." This disease is caused by a bacterium that infects cotton plants and causes dark, sunken lesions to appear on the stems and branches. These lesions can spread and ultimately kill the plant. The name "black arm" comes from the appearance of these lesions, which often turn black as the disease progresses. Other symptoms of bacterial blight of cotton include wilting, leaf drop, and boll rot.

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A farmer uses agricultural loans to fund various aspects of their farm operations, such as purchasing seeds, hiring machinery and tools, paying labour wages, purchasing drugs for livestock, and marketing their crops. However, the option that the farmer does not use their agricultural loans for is "marketing his crops." Agricultural loans are used for upfront expenses that are necessary to produce and harvest crops. Once the crops are harvested, they are sold in the market, and the revenue generated from the sale can be used to pay back the loan and other operational costs. Therefore, the marketing of crops is typically not covered by agricultural loans.

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The option that is not a sign of animal approaching parturition is "drop in milk production". The other options are signs of an animal that is about to give birth. Soft, pliable and swollen vulva, relaxed cervix, full mammary gland, and relaxed pelvic ligaments are all signs that indicate the animal is getting ready for parturition. However, a drop in milk production may indicate that the animal has already given birth or that there is a problem with lactation, but it is not a reliable sign of approaching parturition.

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The symptom that can be used to identify maize rust is the presence of raised brown spots on the leaves. These spots can be small or large and may merge with each other as the disease progresses. The spots are usually surrounded by a yellowish halo, and the affected leaves may eventually dry up and fall off. Other symptoms of maize rust include the yellowing and browning of leaves, as well as the appearance of stripes of yellow and green on infected leaves. However, the most distinctive symptom is the presence of raised brown spots on the leaves.

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When burning is used as a means of land clearing, the nitrogen and sulphur contents of vegetation are released by burning and lost as gases. This means that they are not retained in the soil or the ash after burning. Nitrogen and sulphur are essential nutrients for plants, and their loss through burning can result in reduced soil fertility and plant growth. Additionally, the release of these gases into the atmosphere can contribute to air pollution and acid rain. Therefore, burning should be avoided as a means of land clearing whenever possible, and alternative methods that preserve soil nutrients should be used.

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The correct answer is "size of the head." The growth and development of young animals are affected by various factors such as breed of the animal, nutritional status, health status, and housing conditions. However, the size of the head is not a factor that affects the growth and development of young animals. Therefore, it is the exception in the given list.

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The symptoms listed above are indicative of the gummosis disease of citrus. Gummosis is a fungal disease that affects the bark of citrus trees, causing water-soaked bark that eventually peels off. The disease also leads to shrunken new leaves, and gum-like exudation from the cracks on the bark. Additionally, the leaves may turn pale due to reduced photosynthesis caused by the disease. The fungus that causes gummosis thrives in moist conditions, making it common in areas with high humidity or rainfall. Proper pruning, sanitation, and the use of fungicides can help to prevent and manage gummosis in citrus trees.

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A soil with particles of less than 0.002mm in diameter is referred to as "clay." Clay particles are the smallest soil particles and have a very fine texture. Due to their small size, clay particles have a large surface area relative to their volume, which makes them very effective at holding water and nutrients. This can be beneficial for plant growth, but it can also lead to soil compaction and poor drainage if the clay content is too high. Soils with a high clay content can also be difficult to work with, as they tend to be sticky and can form clumps when wet.

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Increase in oxygen level of the soil does not occur as a result of poorly drained soil. Poorly drained soil has too much water and not enough air, which can lead to a decrease in rooting depth, mottling near the top, change in color of the subsoil, and a decrease in organic matter content. When there is excess water, soil pores are filled with water, which limits the amount of oxygen that can reach plant roots. This can lead to a decrease in rooting depth, and also make it harder for plants to absorb nutrients from the soil. The decrease in oxygen level and excess water also create anaerobic conditions that can lead to mottling near the top and a change in color of the subsoil. In these conditions, organic matter in the soil can break down and produce compounds like iron and manganese that cause the soil to change color. An increase in oxygen level of the soil is actually a benefit of well-drained soil, where excess water is able to drain away, allowing air to fill soil pores and reach plant roots.

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The fertilizers that usually contain one nutrient which can be used directly by plants are commonly called straight fertilizers. Straight fertilizers are generally composed of a single nutrient, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, or potassium, and are used to supplement specific nutrient deficiencies in soil. They are typically applied in their pure form, without any additional additives or fillers, making it easier to precisely control the amount and type of nutrient being added to the soil. Straight fertilizers can be either organic or inorganic, and are often used in combination with other fertilizers or soil amendments to create a nutrient-rich growing environment for plants.

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(a) Ovulation is the process by which a mature egg is released from the ovary into the fallopian tube, where it may be fertilized by a sperm. In humans, ovulation usually occurs once a month during the menstrual cycle.

(b) The estrous cycle, also known as the heat cycle or oestrus cycle, is the reproductive cycle that female mammals go through, which includes the period of sexual receptivity or heat. In most species, the estrous cycle is divided into four stages: proestrus, estrus, metestrus, and diestrus.

(c) Gestation refers to the period of time during which a developing fetus grows inside the uterus of a female mammal. In humans, gestation typically lasts around 40 weeks, or nine months.

(d) Parturition is the process of giving birth to a baby or offspring. During parturition, the uterus contracts to push the baby through the birth canal and out of the mother's body. After delivery, the placenta is also expelled from the uterus.

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The law of demand states that as the price of a product increases, the quantity demanded of that product decreases, and as the price decreases, the quantity demanded increases, all other factors remaining constant.

Six basic assumptions related to agricultural products are:

1. The price of the product is the only factor that influences the quantity demanded.
2. Consumers have a limited budget for spending on agricultural products.
3. The product is homogeneous, meaning that it is the same quality and has the same features across different sellers.
4. Consumer preferences for agricultural products do not change.
5. The product is a necessity, and there are no close substitutes for it.
6. Consumers have complete information about the product.

A demand schedule and demand curve can illustrate the law of demand. A demand schedule is a table that shows the relationship between the price of a product and the quantity demanded of that product. A demand curve is a graphical representation of the same relationship.

For example, let's consider the demand for apples. Suppose the price of apples is $2 per pound, and consumers are willing to buy 100 pounds of apples per week. If the price of apples decreases to $1.50 per pound, consumers may be willing to buy 120 pounds of apples per week. This relationship can be shown in a demand schedule:

The same relationship can be shown graphically in a demand curve:

[Graph showing a downward sloping demand curve]

As the price of apples decreases from $2.00 to $1.50 per pound, the quantity demanded of apples increases from 100 to 120 pounds per week. This illustrates the law of demand: as the price of a product decreases, the quantity demanded of that product increases, all other factors remaining constant.

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a) A balanced ration is a type of animal feed that provides all the necessary nutrients, in the right proportions, to support the growth, reproduction, and maintenance of an animal's health. It contains a mix of carbohydrates, protein, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water in the right amounts that are needed to meet the animal's nutritional requirements.

b) The other feed ingredients that are essential for birds at the point of lay are as follows:

• Calcium: This is an essential nutrient for the formation of eggshells. Birds at the point of lay require high levels of calcium in their diet to ensure they produce strong, well-formed eggs.
• Phosphorus: This mineral is essential for bone growth and maintenance, as well as for energy metabolism and other cellular processes.
• Salt: This is an important mineral that helps maintain fluid balance in the body, and is also necessary for proper nerve and muscle function.

The maize meal, groundnut cake, fish meal, and brewers' grain in the given ration already provide a good source of carbohydrates, protein, and fats. However, the ration is lacking in essential minerals, especially calcium and phosphorus, which are necessary for the formation of strong eggshells and bone growth. Salt is also needed to ensure proper fluid balance in the body.

In summary, a balanced ration is essential to ensure that animals receive all the necessary nutrients for optimal growth, reproduction, and maintenance of their health. The specific ingredients required in a balanced ration may vary depending on the species of animal and their nutritional requirements.

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Proper maintenance of a tractor is essential to ensure its safe operation and longevity. Here are eight maintenance practices that tractor owners should follow, along with some precautions to keep in mind:

1. Change the engine oil regularly: Regularly changing the engine oil can help keep the tractor's engine running smoothly. It is important to follow the manufacturer's recommendations for oil type and change intervals.
2. Check and replace filters: Air, fuel, and hydraulic filters should be checked and replaced regularly to prevent contamination of the engine and hydraulic system.
3. Keep the tractor clean: Regularly cleaning the tractor can help prevent dirt and debris from building up and causing damage. It also makes it easier to inspect the tractor for any issues.
4. Inspect the tires: Check the tires regularly for wear and damage. Overinflated or underinflated tires can cause stability problems or even blowouts. Make sure the tires are properly inflated to the manufacturer's recommendations.
5. Grease fittings: Regularly lubricating the tractor's grease fittings can help prevent wear on moving parts.
6. Check the battery: Ensure the battery is charged and connections are clean and tight. A weak or dead battery can cause starting problems.
7. Inspect the brakes: Check the brakes regularly to ensure they are working properly. Faulty brakes can lead to accidents and cause damage to the tractor.
8. Store the tractor properly: When not in use, store the tractor in a dry, covered area. This can help prevent rust and damage to the tractor.

Precautions:

• Always read the owner's manual and follow the manufacturer's recommendations for maintenance and safety precautions.
• Always wear appropriate safety gear, such as gloves, safety glasses, and steel-toed boots.
• Use caution when working around moving parts, hot surfaces, or electrical components.
• Always use the proper tools and equipment for the job.
• Never attempt maintenance or repairs while the tractor is running.
• Always shut off the engine and engage the parking brake before performing maintenance or repairs.
• Never remove safety guards or shields.
• If unsure about a maintenance task, seek the advice of a qualified mechanic.

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(a) Six environmental factors affecting agricultural production in Nigeria are:

1. Climate
2. Soil type
3. Water availability
4. Topography
5. Pests and diseases
6. Land degradation

(b) Explanation of how five of the factors listed in (a) can affect agricultural production in Nigeria:

1. Climate: Climate plays a crucial role in determining the success of agricultural production in Nigeria. Extreme weather conditions such as droughts or floods can adversely affect crop growth and yield. Climate change may also result in a shift in the cropping pattern, leading to changes in the type of crops grown and their yield.
2. Soil type: Different soil types have different nutrient levels and water retention capacities, which can affect crop growth and yield. For example, sandy soil can drain water quickly, leading to drought conditions, while clay soil can retain water, leading to waterlogging and root rot.
3. Water availability: The availability of water is crucial for agricultural production in Nigeria. The availability of irrigation water can increase crop yield and quality, while water scarcity can lead to crop failure.
4. Topography: The topography of the land can affect agricultural production in Nigeria. Steep slopes can lead to soil erosion and nutrient loss, while flat lands are more conducive for crop cultivation.
5. Pests and diseases: Pests and diseases can cause significant damage to crops, leading to decreased yields and economic losses. Proper pest and disease management practices are essential to mitigate the impact of pests and diseases on agricultural production in Nigeria.

6. Land degradation: Land degradation, such as soil erosion, deforestation, and desertification, can reduce the productivity of agricultural land in Nigeria. It can also lead to loss of biodiversity, which is critical for maintaining ecosystem services and food security.

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(a) Four roles of government in agricultural production are:

1. Providing agricultural subsidies and incentives to farmers to boost agricultural productivity and profitability.
2. Development and implementation of agricultural policies and programs that promote sustainable agricultural practices, food security, and rural development.
3. Providing research and extension services to farmers to improve their knowledge and skills in modern agricultural practices.
4. Investing in rural infrastructure, such as roads, irrigation systems, and storage facilities to improve access to markets and reduce post-harvest losses.

(b) Four traditional land ownership systems in Nigeria are:

1. Communal land ownership system: In this system, land is owned by the community and is available for communal use. A disadvantage of this system is that it may lead to conflicts over land allocation and use.
2. Family land ownership system: Land is owned by the family and is passed down from generation to generation. A disadvantage of this system is that it may lead to fragmentation of land holdings, making it difficult for farmers to obtain economies of scale.
3. Chieftaincy land ownership system: In this system, land is owned by the traditional ruler and is allocated to members of the community. A disadvantage of this system is that it may lead to land being allocated based on favoritism rather than merit.
4. State land ownership system: In this system, the government owns all land and allocates it to individuals or organizations. A disadvantage of this system is that it may lead to inefficient use of land as the government may not always allocate it to those who can use it most productively.

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a) Five management methods adopted in the forest area to ensure a continuous timber supply are:

1. Selective logging: This method involves harvesting only mature trees while leaving younger trees to grow and regenerate, ensuring a continuous timber supply in the long term.
2. Plantation forestry: This involves planting and managing trees in a specific area to ensure a continuous supply of timber for commercial purposes.
3. Silviculture: This is the practice of controlling the growth, composition, and quality of forest stands to ensure that they meet the desired objectives, such as timber production.
4. Forest certification: This is a process of verifying that the forest management practices meet a set of environmental and social standards.
5. Forest regeneration: This involves ensuring that the forest is regenerated after harvesting, either naturally or by planting new trees.

b) Six benefits derived from forestry and range are:

1. Economic benefits: Forestry and range provide timber and other forest products such as fuelwood, charcoal, and non-timber forest products like mushrooms, honey, and medicinal plants. These products contribute to the livelihoods of millions of people worldwide and generate significant revenue for local and national economies.
2. Environmental benefits: Forests and ranges play a crucial role in maintaining ecological balance by regulating climate, conserving soil and water resources, preserving biodiversity, and preventing soil erosion.
3. Social benefits: Forests and ranges are a source of recreation, tourism, and cultural values. They also provide habitat for wildlife and support the livelihoods of indigenous and local communities.
4. Carbon sequestration: Forests and ranges absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, thus mitigating the effects of climate change.
5. Water regulation: Forests and ranges act as natural water filters, regulating the quality and quantity of water available for human consumption and agricultural purposes.
6. Disaster prevention: Forests and ranges act as natural barriers, protecting communities from natural disasters like floods and landslides.

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(a) Agricultural marketing refers to the process of selling and distributing agricultural products from the farm to the consumers. The four channels of marketing farm produce are:

1. Direct marketing: This involves the farmer selling directly to the consumer, usually at a local market or roadside stand.
2. Auction marketing: This involves the farmer taking his products to an auction market, where buyers bid on the products.
3. Cooperative marketing: This involves farmers pooling their resources to form a cooperative, which then markets the products on behalf of the members.
4. Commission marketing: This involves the farmer hiring a commission agent or broker to sell the products on their behalf, usually in larger markets.

(b) Four problems associated with marketing of farm produce by small-scale farmers are:

1. Lack of access to markets: Small-scale farmers often face challenges in getting their products to market due to poor infrastructure, inadequate transportation, and limited market information.
2. Price instability: Small-scale farmers are vulnerable to price fluctuations in the market, which can result in unstable income and financial insecurity.
3. Lack of bargaining power: Small-scale farmers often lack bargaining power in the market due to their limited production capacity and lack of organization, resulting in lower prices for their products.
4. Poor quality control: Small-scale farmers may lack the resources and expertise to ensure consistent quality of their products, which can result in lower prices and reduced demand.

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(a) Chemical control: This method involves the use of pesticides to prevent and control the spread of crop diseases and pests. However, the overuse of pesticides can have several negative side effects such as toxicity to non-target organisms, resistance development in pests, and environmental pollution.

(b) Biological control: This method involves the use of natural enemies of pests to control their population. The side effects of biological control are generally minimal as it involves the use of natural predators and parasites. However, the success of this method can depend on the availability and effectiveness of the natural enemies.

(c) Cultural control: This method involves the use of cultural practices such as crop rotation, intercropping, and sanitation to prevent and control the spread of crop diseases and pests. The side effects of cultural control are generally positive as it promotes sustainable agriculture and reduces the reliance on chemical pesticides. However, this method may require more labor and time compared to chemical control.

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(a) The carbon cycle is the process through which carbon is cycled and recycled through various components of the earth's system, including the atmosphere, oceans, soils, and living organisms. The cycle can be divided into two main parts: the geological (or long-term) carbon cycle and the biological (or short-term) carbon cycle.

The geological carbon cycle involves the slow movement of carbon between the atmosphere, oceans, and rocks over millions of years. Carbon is absorbed by plants during photosynthesis and converted into organic matter, which is then consumed by animals. When these organisms die, their remains can be buried under sediment and eventually become fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas.

The biological carbon cycle involves the more rapid movement of carbon through living organisms and the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is absorbed by plants during photosynthesis and converted into organic matter, which is consumed by other organisms in the food chain. When organisms respire, carbon dioxide is released back into the atmosphere. Decomposition of dead organic matter also releases carbon dioxide.

(b) The carbon cycle is important to crops and animals because it provides the basic building blocks for life. Carbon is a crucial component of organic matter, which is the basis for all living organisms. Plants use carbon dioxide during photosynthesis to produce glucose, which they use as energy to grow and reproduce. Animals, in turn, consume these plants and use the carbon stored in their tissues for growth and energy.

Additionally, carbon is an essential element in soil, where it helps to regulate soil structure and fertility. Microorganisms in the soil rely on carbon for their energy needs and play an important role in the decomposition of organic matter, which releases nutrients that plants need to grow.

Overall, the carbon cycle is essential for maintaining the balance of life on earth, and disruptions to the cycle can have far-reaching impacts on crops and animals, as well as the climate and the environment as a whole.