WAEC SSCE - Agricultural Science - 1988

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The situation where only certain trees in a forest reserve are cut down while leaving other trees intact is known as selective exploitation. In this process, specific trees are identified and marked for cutting, while the remaining trees are left to continue growing. This is done to minimize the impact on the environment and maintain the biodiversity of the forest. Selective exploitation is a sustainable way of managing forests, as it allows for the extraction of timber while ensuring that the forest ecosystem remains healthy and intact.

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Ginning is the process of separating cotton fibre from its seed. It involves the use of a machine called a cotton gin, which uses a series of saws and screens to separate the cotton fibres from the seeds. The separated cotton fibres are then cleaned and pressed into bales for shipment to textile mills, where they are further processed into various products such as clothing, bedding, and industrial textiles.

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The head of the tapeworm is called the scolex. It is the part of the tapeworm that attaches itself to the intestinal wall of its host using hooks and suckers. The scolex is also responsible for producing new segments of the tapeworm's body.

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The alternate heating and cooling of rocks result in fragmentation. This is because when rocks are subjected to repeated heating and cooling cycles, they expand and contract due to the changes in temperature. This expansion and contraction cause stress on the rocks, which eventually leads to the formation of cracks and fractures. Over time, the continued stress on the rocks causes them to break down into smaller pieces, resulting in fragmentation. This process is also known as thermal stress weathering.

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A capsule fruit is a type of fruit that consists of two or more carpels, which separate to release the seeds when the fruit is mature. Among the options given, the fruit that is a capsule is okra. Okra is a fruit that develops from the ovary of a flower and has a ridged and elongated shape. It contains multiple carpels, which split open when the fruit is ripe, releasing the numerous seeds inside.

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The common surveying equipment for farmland does not include the spade. A spade is a tool used for digging and is not typically used for measuring or surveying land. The other options listed are commonly used surveying equipment for farmland. A ranging pole is used to mark points and to measure vertical distances. A prismatic compass is used to determine the direction of a line. A measuring tape is used to measure horizontal distances. A Gunter's chain is a measuring tool used to measure larger areas. In summary, while the ranging pole, prismatic compass, measuring tape, and Gunter's chain are all commonly used surveying equipment for farmland, the spade is not used for this purpose.

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The most important symptom of brucellosis in cattle is abortion. Brucellosis is a bacterial infection that can cause cows to lose their calves before they are born. This is the most significant symptom because it can cause economic losses to farmers who rely on their cows to produce calves for milk and meat production. In addition, the bacteria that cause brucellosis can also be transmitted to humans, causing a serious disease called undulant fever. Therefore, it is essential to identify and control brucellosis in cattle to prevent the spread of the disease to humans and other animals.

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A piece of land is said to be on lease to a farmer when the land is given for a specified period on a rental basis. Leasing is an arrangement where the owner of the land, known as the lessor, grants the right to use the land to another person, known as the lessee, for a specific period. The lessee pays rent to the lessor for the use of the land during this period. The lease period may be short-term, such as one or two years, or long-term, such as 10, 20, or even 99 years. At the end of the lease period, the land reverts back to the lessor, and the lessee must vacate the land.

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After clearing a new farmland, the next farm operation typically involves preparing the soil for planting. The implement that will be used for this operation is a plough. A plough is used to turn over the top layer of soil, which helps to break up any large clumps, and also to bury any unwanted weeds or plant material. This makes the soil loose and soft, which is ideal for planting crops. Harrows, ridgers, cultivators and planters are used for subsequent operations such as smoothing the soil, making furrows for planting, loosening soil for aeration and planting seeds.

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Progeny selection is a breeding technique that involves selecting breeding stock based on the performance of their offspring. This means that the animals that produce the most desirable offspring are chosen for breeding. The idea behind progeny selection is that the characteristics of the offspring are a good indicator of the genetic potential of the parent animals. By selecting breeding stock based on the performance of their offspring, breeders can improve the overall quality of their herd or flock over time. This technique differs from selecting breeding stock based on the individual merits of each animal, which is known as individual selection. Progeny selection is a more long-term approach that aims to improve the overall genetic potential of the breeding population. While parental characteristics and sire-dam relationship are important factors to consider in breeding, progeny selection is specifically focused on the performance of offspring. Therefore, the practice of progeny selection involves selecting breeding stock on the basis of the performance of their offspring.

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The reproductive cells of crops are called gametes. Gametes are specialized cells that combine during fertilization to form a zygote, which ultimately develops into a new plant. In crops, the male gametes are produced in the anthers of the flower, while the female gametes are produced in the ovules. Gametes contain half the genetic material of a normal cell, and when they combine during fertilization, they form a zygote with a complete set of genetic material. This process allows for genetic diversity and variation in crop populations.

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Earthworms are important to farmers because they improve the soil in many ways. They tunnel through the soil, creating spaces for air and water to move through. This helps to improve the soil structure, which means the soil holds its shape better and doesn't get compacted as easily. Earthworms also break down organic matter, such as dead leaves and plant debris, and turn it into nutrient-rich castings that plants can use for food. This helps to add nutrients to the soil and makes it more fertile. In addition, earthworms can help to prevent soil erosion by holding the soil in place with their burrows. When it rains, the water can flow through the soil instead of washing it away. Overall, earthworms are important to farmers because they help to create healthy soil that supports the growth of crops.

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The efficiency of agricultural production is not usually improved by the improved sales of crop and livestock. Although the sales of agricultural products generate income for farmers and contribute to their economic well-being, they do not directly improve the efficiency of agricultural production. Efficiency is improved by various practices such as using improved crop varieties and livestock breeds, increasing the use of manure and fertilizers, controlling pests, diseases and weeds, and using better farm equipment and tools. These practices are designed to increase the quantity and quality of the agricultural products, reduce waste, and minimize costs. By doing so, they increase the productivity and profitability of the farm, which in turn can lead to improved sales.

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The biotic factor that influences agricultural production is a parasite. A parasite is a living organism that lives on or inside another living organism, known as the host, and obtains its nutrients from the host. Parasites can affect agricultural production by causing diseases in plants and animals, reducing their growth, and causing death. In agriculture, plant parasites such as fungi, bacteria, and viruses can cause crop diseases, which can significantly reduce crop yields. Animal parasites, such as ticks and worms, can also infect livestock and reduce their productivity. Therefore, controlling parasites is essential in agriculture to maintain the health and productivity of crops and livestock.

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The farm practice that can prevent excessive evaporation from soil surfaces is called mulching. Mulching is the process of covering the soil surface with a layer of organic or inorganic materials, such as straw, leaves, wood chips, plastic film or gravel. This layer acts as a barrier between the soil and the atmosphere, reducing the rate of water loss through evaporation. Mulching helps to conserve soil moisture, suppress weed growth, reduce soil erosion and maintain soil temperature. By reducing water loss from the soil surface, mulching enables crops to utilize more of the available water, resulting in increased plant growth and yield. In contrast, ploughing, harrowing, weeding, and liming are other farm practices that can improve soil health, but they do not specifically address the issue of excessive evaporation.

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Most biological activity occurs in the A-horizon of the soil profile. The A-horizon is also known as the topsoil layer, and it is the layer closest to the soil surface. This layer is rich in organic matter and contains high concentrations of soil organisms such as bacteria, fungi, earthworms, and other microorganisms that play essential roles in the decomposition of organic matter and the formation of soil nutrients. The high levels of organic matter and the presence of these soil organisms make the A-horizon the most fertile layer of the soil profile, and it is the layer where most plants roots are found. As a result, the A-horizon plays a critical role in soil health and plant growth.

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Anthrax is not caused by a virus. It is caused by a bacterium called Bacillus anthracis. The other four diseases listed are caused by viruses.

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The process of making hay involves cutting, drying, and then baling the grass or other forage crops. First, the farmer cuts the grass or forage crop in the field when it is at the right stage of growth. This is usually done with a specialized machine called a mower or a haybine. Next, the cut grass is left in the field to dry. This is typically done by spreading the cut grass out in rows called windrows so that it can dry in the sun. The drying process can take several days, depending on the weather conditions. Once the grass is dry, it is then baled using a machine called a baler. The baler compresses the dry grass into tightly packed bales that are easier to store and transport. Overall, the main steps in making hay are cutting the forage crop, drying it in the sun, and then baling it into compact bales for storage and transportation.

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The causative organism of maize rust is a fungus. Maize rust is a fungal disease that affects maize crops, and it is caused by the fungus Puccinia polysora. The fungus attacks the leaves of the maize plant, causing yellowish-orange pustules or lesions on the upper surface of the leaves. These pustules eventually turn brown and release spores, which can spread the disease to other plants. Maize rust can significantly reduce crop yield and quality, and it is important for farmers to take measures to control its spread, such as planting resistant maize varieties and practicing good crop management practices.

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Soil texture is described as the distribution of the different sizes of soil particles. This includes sand, silt, and clay particles. Soil texture is an important characteristic of soil that affects its ability to retain water and nutrients, as well as its drainage and aeration properties. Sandy soils have larger particles and are generally well-drained, but do not retain water and nutrients as well as clay soils. Clay soils have smaller particles and are better at retaining water and nutrients, but are often poorly drained and have low aeration. The proportion of sand, silt, and clay particles in a soil sample determines its overall texture.

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The question is asking for the option that is not associated with surface irrigation. Surface irrigation is a type of irrigation where water is distributed over the soil surface by gravity, and is commonly used in agriculture to water crops. Option C, sprinkler irrigation, is not associated with surface irrigation because it involves spraying water over the crops, as opposed to letting it flow over the soil surface. Sprinkler irrigation is a type of overhead irrigation, where water is distributed through a network of pipes and sprinkler heads. Therefore, the answer is option C, sprinkler irrigation.

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The Kuri breed of cattle is commonly found in the Borno area of Nigeria. The breed is adapted to the arid and semi-arid environments of the Sahel region of Africa, which includes parts of Nigeria, Chad, Niger, Mali, and Burkina Faso. The Kuri breed is known for its tolerance to heat and drought, making it well-suited for the dry climate of the Sahel. It is also valued for its meat and milk production. While the other areas listed may have their own indigenous breeds of cattle, the Kuri breed is particularly associated with the Borno area of Nigeria due to its adaptation to the region's environmental conditions. Therefore, the Kuri breed of cattle is commonly found in the Borno area of Nigeria.

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Feeds with high amount of fibre are classified as "roughages". Roughages are feeds that contain a high proportion of fiber relative to other nutrients. These include forages such as grasses, hay, and silage, as well as other fibrous feeds such as straw and corn stalks. Roughages are important in the diets of many livestock species because they provide bulk in the diet, which helps to stimulate digestion and keep the digestive tract healthy. They also tend to be less expensive than concentrates, which are feeds that are high in energy and low in fiber.

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The type of rocks formed from molten magma is known as igneous rocks. These rocks are formed when magma (molten rock beneath the Earth's surface) or lava (molten rock on the Earth's surface) cools and solidifies. As the magma or lava cools, it undergoes a process of crystallization, forming minerals that eventually make up the igneous rock. Igneous rocks can be classified into two main types based on where they formed: intrusive and extrusive. Intrusive igneous rocks form when magma cools slowly beneath the Earth's surface, while extrusive igneous rocks form when lava cools quickly on the Earth's surface. Some common examples of igneous rocks include granite, basalt, and pumice.

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The groundnut rosette virus is transmitted by aphids. Aphids are small insects that feed on the sap of plants. When they feed on a plant infected with the groundnut rosette virus, the virus can be transmitted to healthy plants through their mouthparts. Aphids can transmit the virus in a persistent manner, which means that the virus can remain in their bodies and be transmitted to other plants for a long period of time. This makes aphids a major vector for the transmission of groundnut rosette virus.

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Mulching is not a method of controlling pests. Mulching is a technique used in agriculture and gardening to suppress weed growth, retain moisture in the soil, and regulate soil temperature. It involves covering the soil around plants with a layer of organic or inorganic material such as leaves, straw, plastic, or rocks. Although mulching can improve crop yields by providing a favorable growing environment, it does not control pests directly. The other options listed are methods of controlling pests. Quarantine involves isolating infested plants or animals to prevent the spread of pests. Crop rotation involves planting different crops in a particular field in a sequence to break the pest cycle. Fumigation involves exposing crops to gaseous chemicals to kill pests. Trapping involves capturing pests using baits or sticky traps to reduce their population.

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A small plot of land where intensive cultivation is practiced to produce vegetables is generally referred to as a garden. Gardens can be created in backyards or small plots of land and are often used for growing vegetables, fruits, herbs, and flowers for personal consumption or sale. Intensive cultivation involves the use of techniques such as crop rotation, intercropping, and the use of fertilizers and pesticides to maximize the yield of crops grown in a small space. The term "garden" can also be used to refer to larger areas of land used for cultivation, such as community gardens or botanical gardens, but in this context, it specifically refers to small plots used for intensive vegetable production.

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The type of energy obtained from the sun for agricultural uses is known as solar energy. Solar energy is the energy that is produced by the sun and is harnessed using various technologies such as solar panels, solar heaters, and solar dryers. In agriculture, solar energy can be used to power irrigation pumps, run electric fences, and provide lighting for buildings and greenhouses. Solar energy is a renewable source of energy, meaning it can be used repeatedly without being depleted. It is also a clean source of energy, producing no harmful emissions or pollution, making it an environmentally friendly option for agricultural applications.

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The agent of controlled pollination in plants is man. Controlled pollination is a process in which the pollen from one plant is transferred to the stigma of another plant with the aim of producing offspring with desirable traits. This process is carried out under controlled conditions by humans, usually plant breeders or farmers. Controlled pollination allows for the selection of specific traits in plants, such as disease resistance, improved yield, and better fruit quality. This is achieved by selecting the parent plants with the desired traits and then transferring the pollen from those plants to the stigma of the other parent plants. While wind, insects, birds, and water can also aid in the pollination of plants, controlled pollination requires the intentional intervention of humans to ensure that the desired traits are passed on to the offspring. Therefore, the agent of controlled pollination in plants is man.

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Water cannot be used to rub the metal parts of farm tools before storage as it can lead to rusting. Rusting is the process where metal surfaces react with water and air to form iron oxide, which is a type of rust. This can cause damage to the metal and reduce the effectiveness and durability of the tool. Therefore, it is important to dry the metal parts thoroughly after cleaning and use a protective coating such as grease, palm oil, petroleum jelly or spent engine oil to prevent rusting.

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The most effective method of controlling or preventing viral diseases in plants is by planting resistant varieties. This is because resistant varieties of plants are genetically modified to be immune or less susceptible to the virus, which means they are less likely to be affected by the virus or can recover from it quickly without the need for chemical treatment. This approach is more sustainable and environmentally friendly as it reduces the need for chemical pesticides, which can harm beneficial insects and other organisms, as well as contaminate the soil and water. Therefore, planting resistant varieties is a more reliable and long-term solution for preventing the spread of viral diseases in plants.

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Fingerlings refer to the young of fish. They are small, juvenile fish that are typically between the size of a fry and a juvenile fish. Fingerlings are commonly used in aquaculture, which is the farming of fish and other aquatic organisms. They are raised in hatcheries and then stocked in ponds or other bodies of water where they are raised to maturity. Some common fish species that are raised as fingerlings include tilapia, catfish, trout, and salmon. Fingerlings are important for the aquaculture industry as they provide a sustainable source of fish for human consumption.

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Crops grown primarily for feeding animals are known as forage crops. Forage crops are crops that are specifically cultivated to provide food for grazing animals, such as cattle, sheep, and goats. They are typically high in fiber and nutrients that are important for animal health and growth. Examples of forage crops include grasses, such as Timothy grass and Bermuda grass, as well as legumes, such as clover and alfalfa. These crops are often harvested as hay or silage, which can be stored for later use as animal feed. While the other options listed may also be used for animal feed, such as vegetables and cereals, the term "forage" specifically refers to crops that are grown primarily for animal consumption. Therefore, crops grown primarily for feeding animals are known as forage crops.

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Fish can be processed and preserved in a variety of ways, but one of the most common ways is through salting and smoking. Salting helps to remove moisture from the fish and creates an environment that is inhospitable to bacteria. Smoking the fish then adds flavor and helps to preserve it further by reducing the amount of water and oxygen available to bacteria. This process of salting and smoking can extend the shelf life of fish for several months. Another method of preserving fish is through fermentation, which is often used to make fish sauces and pastes. However, smoking and pasteurization are also sometimes used in fish preservation, but not as commonly as salting and smoking.

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The responsibility of exposing farmers to scientific knowledge lies with the extension personnel. Extension personnel are experts who have a good understanding of agricultural practices and scientific advancements in agriculture. They work closely with farmers and provide them with information, advice, and training on modern farming methods, new technologies, and other related information that can help improve agricultural productivity and profitability. Extension personnel play a vital role in bridging the gap between research institutions and farmers, ensuring that scientific knowledge and innovations are disseminated to farmers and adopted on the ground.

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All decisions are important for a farmer to make, and each can benefit them in different ways. However, the decision that will not benefit a farmer is to diversify production from the beginning without first establishing a successful production system for a particular crop or livestock. Diversification can be a good strategy for farmers to mitigate risk and improve their income, but it should not be done at the expense of the primary production system. A farmer should first focus on establishing a successful production system for a particular crop or livestock, then diversify into other crops or livestock. This will enable the farmer to build experience and expertise in one area, and then apply that knowledge to other areas for a more successful diversification.

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The type of soil that contains particles of diameter between 0.02 mm and 2.0 mm is called sand. Sand particles are larger than silt and clay particles but smaller than gravel particles. This type of soil is characterized by its ability to drain water quickly and its low nutrient-holding capacity. Because of its good drainage properties, sand soils are often used for crops that require good drainage, such as carrots, radishes, and other root vegetables. However, they may require more frequent irrigation and fertilization compared to soils with higher nutrient-holding capacity. Sand soils are also commonly used in construction for making concrete and as a building material.

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Granite is an igneous rock. Igneous rocks are formed from solidified magma or lava. Granite specifically is a plutonic rock, which means it forms deep beneath the Earth's surface when molten magma cools and solidifies slowly over a long period of time. It is composed mainly of quartz, feldspar, and mica minerals, and has a granular texture. Granite is a common type of rock that is used in construction for buildings, monuments, countertops, and other decorative applications due to its durability, strength, and attractive appearance.

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The plant-a-tree-campaign of the Federal Government of Nigeria is a way of encouraging forest regeneration. This means that the campaign aims to encourage the planting of new trees to replace those that have been lost due to deforestation, logging, and other forms of human activities that lead to the destruction of forests. The campaign is aimed at restoring the ecosystem, reducing the effects of climate change, and promoting biodiversity by creating new habitats for plants and animals. By encouraging people to plant trees, the campaign is promoting a sustainable way of managing forests for the benefit of current and future generations.

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Reduction of ten seedlings of pawpaw to two per stand is referred to as thinning. Thinning is the process of removing excess plants from a crop in order to achieve optimal plant population. In the case of pawpaw, thinning involves removing all but the strongest two seedlings in a stand. This allows the remaining seedlings to have more space, nutrients, and light to grow and develop properly, resulting in healthier and more productive plants.

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The brownish flattened and leaf-like parasite found in cattle is called a liver fluke. Liver flukes are flatworms that infect the liver of various animals, including cattle, sheep, and goats. They are named for their leaf-like shape and brownish color. Liver flukes can cause liver damage and other health problems in infected animals. They are commonly found in areas with wet, marshy conditions, as they require a snail intermediate host in their life cycle. While the other options listed are also parasites that can affect cattle, the brownish flattened and leaf-like appearance is most closely associated with liver flukes. Therefore, the brownish flattened and leaf-like parasite found in cattle is called a liver fluke.

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Groundnut cake is commonly used as a source of plant protein in livestock ration. Groundnut cake is a by-product of groundnut oil extraction, and it contains a high percentage of protein, making it a valuable source of protein in animal feeds. It is often used as a replacement for soybean meal in livestock rations, especially in areas where soybean meal is not readily available or is too expensive. Maize, rice bran, wheat bran, and molasses are also commonly used in livestock rations, but they are not typically used as a primary source of protein.

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The relationship between microorganisms and plants in the nitrogen cycle is best described as symbiosis. Nitrogen is an essential nutrient for plant growth and is often limited in soil. Nitrogen gas makes up about 78% of the Earth's atmosphere, but it is not in a form that plants can use. The nitrogen cycle is a process by which nitrogen is converted into a usable form for plants, and microorganisms play a vital role in this process. Some microorganisms, such as nitrogen-fixing bacteria, form a symbiotic relationship with plants. These bacteria live in the roots of plants and convert nitrogen gas from the atmosphere into a form that plants can use, such as ammonia or nitrate. In return, the plant provides the bacteria with carbohydrates and other nutrients. Other microorganisms, such as nitrifying bacteria, convert ammonia into nitrate, which is also used by plants. Still, others, such as denitrifying bacteria, convert nitrate back into nitrogen gas, completing the nitrogen cycle. Overall, the relationship between microorganisms and plants in the nitrogen cycle is best described as symbiosis, as they rely on each other for survival and growth. Without microorganisms, plants would not have access to the nitrogen they need to grow, and without plants, microorganisms would not have a source of energy and nutrients.

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Loss of appetite, respiratory difficulties, and nervous paralysis are symptoms of Newcastle disease in birds. Newcastle disease is a highly contagious viral infection that affects a wide range of bird species, including domestic poultry. The disease is characterized by respiratory signs, such as gasping, coughing, and nasal discharge, as well as digestive signs like diarrhea and a decrease in feed and water consumption. The nervous system can also be affected, leading to paralysis of the legs, wings, and neck. Newcastle disease can have a significant impact on the poultry industry and can result in high mortality rates in infected flocks.

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The question is asking to identify the problem associated with land tenure through inheritance that is not applicable. The option that is not applicable to the problems associated with land tenure through inheritance is "right of individuals to free use and control of inherited land". The right to use and control inherited land is a common issue in inheritance and is actually one of the problems associated with land tenure through inheritance. Therefore, the answer to the question is: "right of individuals to free use and control of inherited land".

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Dehorning is not a practice that a farmer would adopt in pig management. This is because pigs are not naturally horned animals, so there is no need for dehorning. The other practices listed are all common in pig management: ear notching is a method of identification, deworming helps to control internal parasites, castration is often done to prevent aggressive behavior and improve meat quality, and feeding iron supplements is important for the health of piglets.

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A farmer cultivating leafy vegetables will require fertilizers with a relatively high content of nitrogen. Nitrogen is an essential nutrient for plant growth and is needed in larger quantities than other nutrients. Leafy vegetables, such as lettuce, spinach, and cabbage, require large amounts of nitrogen to support their rapid vegetative growth and the production of green foliage. Nitrogen is a component of chlorophyll, which is responsible for the green color of leaves and is essential for photosynthesis. Fertilizers with high nitrogen content provide the necessary nutrients for leafy vegetables to grow quickly, produce more foliage, and increase their overall yield. However, excessive use of nitrogen fertilizers can lead to environmental problems such as groundwater contamination and greenhouse gas emissions. Overall, nitrogen is an essential nutrient for leafy vegetable production, and fertilizers with a relatively high content of nitrogen are necessary to support their growth and yield.

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Mould is an example of a fungal disease that affects stored grains. It is a type of fungi that grows on the surface of grains, consuming nutrients from the grain and producing spores that can spread the infection to nearby grains. Mould growth is usually a sign of high moisture levels in the storage area or damage to the grain, and can lead to spoilage and decreased nutritional value of the grains. Control measures for mould growth include maintaining proper storage conditions such as low moisture and temperature levels, regular inspection of stored grains and treatment with fungicides.

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(a) The process of egg-formation in poultry, also known as oogenesis, begins in the ovary where the yolk is produced. The yolk then moves down the oviduct where it is covered in layers of albumen (egg white) and membranes. Finally, the eggshell is formed around the outside of the egg in the last part of the oviduct. The completed egg is then laid by the bird.

(b) Reproductive hormones in animals have several functions and roles, including:

1. Regulation of the reproductive cycle: Hormones like luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) regulate the reproductive cycle by stimulating the production and release of eggs and the formation of the corpus luteum.
2. Development of secondary sex characteristics: Hormones like testosterone in males and estrogen in females are responsible for the development of secondary sex characteristics like body hair, deepening of voice, and growth of breasts.
3. Promotion of mating behaviors: Hormones like oxytocin and vasopressin play a role in promoting mating behaviors and bonding between animals.
4. Maintenance of pregnancy: Hormones like progesterone and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) help to maintain pregnancy by preventing the shedding of the uterine lining.
5. Regulation of milk production: Hormones like prolactin stimulate milk production in mammals.
6. Sexual differentiation: Hormones like testosterone and estrogen also play a role in sexual differentiation during fetal development, determining whether an individual will develop as male or female.

Overall, reproductive hormones play important roles in the growth, development, and reproductive processes of animals.

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(a) Marketing/Commodity Boards: These are government organizations that regulate the production, processing, and marketing of agricultural products. They are responsible for setting minimum prices, quality standards, and promoting the marketing of agricultural produce. Their main goal is to ensure that farmers get a fair price for their produce and that consumers get quality products at reasonable prices. Marketing boards typically work with producers to help them sell their crops directly to wholesalers or retailers, and they may also provide financial assistance and marketing advice to farmers.

(b) Co-operative Societies: These are organizations formed by farmers to pool their resources and work together to produce, process, and market their agricultural products. The goal of a cooperative is to provide its members with better bargaining power, access to markets, and reduced transaction costs. Cooperative societies help farmers to obtain better prices for their produce by eliminating intermediaries and middlemen, and they may also provide access to credit, training, and other resources to help farmers improve their production techniques and market their products more effectively.

(c) Middlemen/Wholesalers: These are individuals or organizations that buy agricultural products from farmers and sell them to retailers or consumers. Middlemen play an important role in the marketing of agricultural produce by providing a link between farmers and consumers. They may also provide services such as grading, packaging, and transportation to help farmers get their products to market. However, middlemen can also be a source of exploitation, as they may use their market power to pay farmers low prices for their produce.

(d) Producers: These are individuals or organizations that grow or raise agricultural products. Producers are the foundation of the agricultural marketing chain, as they are responsible for supplying the raw materials that are used to produce food and other products. Producers must take into account market demand, weather patterns, and other factors when deciding what to grow or raise, and they must also consider the costs and risks associated with production. Successful producers must be able to produce high-quality products at a competitive price and market their products effectively to achieve profitability.

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a) Mechanization in agriculture refers to the use of machines and equipment to perform various tasks such as tilling, planting, harvesting, and processing crops. The aim of mechanization is to increase efficiency and productivity in agriculture, reduce labor costs, and save time.

b) The advantages of mechanization in agriculture include:

• Increased efficiency: Machines can perform tasks faster and more accurately than humans, which can increase productivity and reduce labor costs.
• Time-saving: Mechanization can save time by reducing the time required to perform tasks such as planting and harvesting.
• Higher crop yields: Mechanization can lead to higher crop yields due to increased efficiency and reduced labor costs.
• Reduced physical labor: Mechanization can reduce the physical labor required to perform tasks such as tilling and harvesting.

The disadvantages of mechanization include:

• High cost: The initial cost of purchasing and maintaining machines can be expensive.
• Dependence on machines: Farmers may become overly reliant on machines, which can lead to a loss of traditional skills and knowledge.
• Environmental impact: Mechanization can have a negative impact on the environment, such as soil erosion and pollution.
• Unemployment: The use of machines can lead to a decrease in demand for labor, which can result in unemployment and social issues.

c) Four limitations of mechanization in agriculture are:

• Limited access to machinery: In many developing countries, farmers do not have access to modern machines due to their high cost or inadequate infrastructure.
• Unsuitable terrain: Some types of terrain, such as steep slopes or rocky terrain, are not suitable for mechanization, which can limit its use in certain regions.
• Maintenance issues: Machines require regular maintenance, repairs, and replacement parts, which can be difficult and expensive for small-scale farmers.
• Lack of training: Mechanization requires specific skills and training, and some farmers may lack the necessary knowledge and expertise to use the machines effectively.

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(a) Six major uses of land in Nigeria include:
1. Agriculture: Land in Nigeria is primarily used for agricultural purposes such as crop cultivation, animal rearing, and fisheries.
2. Residential: Land is also used for housing and other residential purposes.
3. Commercial: Land is used for commercial activities such as shops, markets, and offices.
4. Industrial: Land is used for industrial purposes such as factories and manufacturing plants.
5. Mining: Land is used for mining activities such as extraction of minerals and crude oil.
6. Transportation: Land is used for transportation purposes such as roads, railways, and airports.

(b) Five factors affecting land availability for agricultural production are:
1. Population growth: As the population grows, the demand for land increases, leading to competition for land resources and reduction in available land for agriculture.
2. Urbanization: Urbanization leads to the conversion of agricultural land into residential, commercial, and industrial areas, thereby reducing the amount of land available for agriculture.
3. Land degradation: Land degradation due to soil erosion, deforestation, and desertification reduces the amount of arable land available for agricultural production.
4. Climate change: Climate change can lead to changes in rainfall patterns, temperature, and weather conditions, affecting the availability and productivity of agricultural land.
5. Land tenure system: Land tenure system refers to the legal framework that governs land ownership and use. In Nigeria, the land tenure system is complex, which can lead to conflicts and disputes over land ownership and use, affecting the availability of land for agricultural production.

Overall, the availability of land for agricultural production in Nigeria is affected by various factors such as population growth, urbanization, land degradation, climate change, and land tenure system.

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Oil palm is a popular oil crop known for its high yield and versatility in the production of various products. Below are some important points to note about oil palm:

(a) Climatic and soil requirements: Oil palm requires a tropical climate with an average temperature of 27°C and an annual rainfall of 2000-2500mm. It thrives best on deep, well-drained soils that are rich in organic matter and have a pH of 4.5-7.0.

(b) Planting date, seed rate, and spacing: Oil palm can be planted all year round, but the best time is at the onset of the rainy season. The seed rate is 150-200 seeds per hectare, and the spacing is usually 9m x 9m or 10m x 10m.

(c) Nursery practices: The oil palm seeds are first soaked in water for three days to soften the outer shell before they are planted in the nursery. The nursery should be well-prepared, and the seedlings should be watered regularly. After six months, the seedlings are ready for transplanting.

(d) Harvesting: Oil palm trees start bearing fruits after three years, and the peak production is usually between 10-15 years. The fruits are harvested every two weeks using long poles with sickles attached to them.

(e) Processing and storage: After harvesting, the fruits are processed to extract the oil. The fruits are first sterilized, stripped of their flesh, and then pressed to extract the oil. The oil is then refined, packaged, and stored in a cool, dry place.

In conclusion, oil palm is a valuable oil crop that requires tropical climatic conditions, well-drained soils, and proper nursery practices. The harvesting process involves regular harvesting of the fruit, while the processing involves sterilization, stripping, pressing, refining, packaging, and storage.

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There are several factors that militate against the development of commercial agriculture in Nigeria. Here are eight of them:

1. Inadequate infrastructure: Nigeria's agricultural sector is plagued by a lack of proper infrastructure, including roads, storage facilities, and processing plants. This hinders the movement of goods from the farm to the market and reduces the quality of products.
2. Limited access to finance: Farmers in Nigeria face significant challenges in obtaining loans and other financial resources needed to purchase inputs, machinery, and other farming equipment. This makes it difficult for them to invest in their farms and increase production.
3. Poor land tenure system: The absence of an effective land tenure system in Nigeria makes it challenging for farmers to acquire land and secure their ownership rights. This has led to conflicts and disputes over land ownership, which have disrupted agricultural activities.
4. Inefficient agricultural policies: Inconsistent and poorly implemented agricultural policies in Nigeria have hindered the growth of commercial agriculture. Policies such as import restrictions and subsidies on certain crops have often been detrimental to the sector's development.
5. Inadequate research and development: The agricultural research system in Nigeria is underdeveloped and inadequately funded. This has resulted in limited access to improved seeds, fertilizers, and other inputs that can increase productivity and improve crop quality.
6. Climate change: Nigeria's agricultural sector is highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change, including droughts, floods, and extreme weather events. These factors reduce yields and contribute to food insecurity.
7. Insufficient technical skills: The lack of technical skills among farmers and farmworkers in Nigeria limits their ability to use modern farming techniques and technologies effectively. This leads to low productivity and poor quality products.
8. Inadequate market information: Limited access to market information and poor market linkages reduce farmers' ability to make informed decisions about what crops to grow, where to sell them, and at what prices. This has resulted in low prices for agricultural products and limited profitability for farmers.

Overall, these factors collectively hinder the development of commercial agriculture in Nigeria, and addressing them will be critical to improving the sector's productivity and profitability.

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(a) Bush burning: Bush burning is a traditional method of land preparation in which vegetation is burned to clear land for cultivation. While it may be effective in clearing the land, it has negative effects on the soil. Bush burning destroys organic matter, which can reduce soil fertility and soil structure. It also exposes the soil to erosion, which can lead to nutrient loss and reduced water-holding capacity.

(b) Fertilizer application: Fertilizer application is a common practice used to improve soil fertility and increase crop yield. When properly applied, fertilizers can improve soil structure, increase nutrient availability, and enhance the biological activity of soil. However, overuse or improper application of fertilizers can have negative effects on the soil. Excessive use of fertilizers can lead to soil acidification, nutrient imbalances, and increased soil salinity, which can reduce soil fertility and crop yields.

(c) Grazing: Grazing involves allowing livestock to feed on plants in a pasture or range. While grazing can provide a source of nutrient-rich organic matter to the soil through manure, it can also have negative effects on the soil. Overgrazing can lead to soil compaction, which reduces soil aeration and water infiltration. It can also result in the loss of vegetation cover, which can lead to erosion and nutrient depletion.

(d) Crop rotation: Crop rotation is a practice in which different crops are planted in a field in successive seasons. Crop rotation has positive effects on the soil, such as improving soil fertility, soil structure, and biological activity. Crop rotation can help to reduce soil-borne diseases and pests, as different crops have different nutrient requirements and can break pest and disease cycles. Additionally, crop rotation can help to prevent soil erosion and improve water-holding capacity.

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(a)

Four factors of production in agriculture are:

1. Land: This refers to the natural resources such as soil, water, air, and vegetation required for crop production, livestock rearing, and other agricultural activities.
2. Labor: This refers to the human resources required to carry out agricultural activities such as planting, weeding, harvesting, and managing livestock.
3. Capital: This refers to the financial resources required to purchase inputs such as seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, and machinery necessary for agricultural production.
4. Entrepreneurship: This refers to the management skills required to organize and coordinate the other factors of production to achieve a profitable and sustainable agricultural enterprise.

(b)

Four functions of a farm manager are:

1. Planning: A farm manager must plan and organize the activities of the farm to ensure that resources are allocated efficiently and effectively to achieve the desired goals.
2. Decision Making: A farm manager must make informed decisions regarding the purchase of inputs, planting schedules, crop management, livestock rearing, and marketing strategies to maximize profitability.
3. Risk Management: A farm manager must identify and manage risks associated with agricultural production such as weather, pests, diseases, and market fluctuations to ensure the sustainability of the farm.
4. Human Resource Management: A farm manager must recruit, train, and manage the human resources required for agricultural production to ensure that labor is used efficiently and effectively.

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(a) Ten common grass and legume species of Nigerian pastures and their common and botanical names are:

1. Guinea grass (Panicum maximum)
2. Elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum)
3. Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum)
4. Buffalo grass (Panicum coloratum)
5. Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana)
6. Star grass (Cynodon nlemfuensis)
7. Carpet grass (Axonopus compressus)
8. Para grass (Brachiaria mutica)
9. Stylo (Stylosanthes guianensis)
10. Lablab (Lablab purpureus)

(b) Three factors affecting the distribution of pastures in Nigeria are:

1. Climate: The distribution of pastures in Nigeria is largely influenced by the climate of the region. Regions with a tropical climate, high rainfall, and moderate temperatures are more likely to have lush green pastures than regions with arid or semi-arid climates.
2. Soil type: The type and quality of soil also affect the distribution of pastures in Nigeria. Regions with fertile soils that can support the growth of grasses and legumes are more likely to have abundant pastures.
3. Grazing pressure: The level of grazing pressure in an area can affect the distribution of pastures. Overgrazing can lead to the depletion of pastures and reduce their distribution, while proper grazing management practices can lead to the sustainable use and maintenance of pastures.

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1. Protein

1. Composition: Proteins are made up of amino acids, which are linked together in a chain.
2. Sources: Sources of protein for livestock include legumes (e.g. soybeans, alfalfa), animal by-products (e.g. fish meal, blood meal), and some cereal grains (e.g. corn, wheat).
3. Functions: Proteins are essential for the growth and repair of body tissues, including muscles, organs, and bones. They also play a role in hormone and enzyme production, as well as immunity.

2. Carbohydrates

1. Composition: Carbohydrates are made up of sugars, which are linked together in chains.
2. Sources: Sources of carbohydrates for livestock include cereal grains (e.g. corn, barley, oats), root crops (e.g. potatoes), and some forages (e.g. grasses, legumes).
3. Functions: Carbohydrates are the primary source of energy for livestock, providing fuel for physical activity and basic bodily functions.

3. Fat

1. Composition: Fats are made up of fatty acids, which can be either saturated or unsaturated.
2. Sources: Sources of fat for livestock include vegetable oils (e.g. soybean oil, cottonseed oil), animal fats (e.g. tallow, lard), and some cereal grains (e.g. corn).
3. Functions: Fats are a concentrated source of energy for livestock and play a role in the absorption and transport of fat-soluble vitamins.

4. Minerals

1. Composition: Minerals are inorganic substances that are required in small amounts.
2. Sources: Sources of minerals for livestock include forages and concentrates (e.g. mineral supplements, salt blocks).
3. Functions: Minerals play a role in many bodily functions, including bone growth and maintenance, enzyme production, and nerve function. Some minerals, such as iron and copper, are also involved in the transport of oxygen in the blood.