WAEC SSCE - Agricultural Science - 1996

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Irrigation is the process of providing water to crops artificially, by means of channels, pipes, ditches, or sprays, to ensure their growth and productivity. It involves supplying water to crops in controlled amounts at regular intervals, especially during dry seasons or in areas with inadequate rainfall. This process is used to enhance agricultural productivity and crop yield.

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The characteristic feature that is not associated with giant-star grass is that it is easy to eradicate once established. Giant-star grass is a type of grass that is characterized by vigorous growth, spreading and being a perennial. It possesses long and rapidly growing stems, which makes it ideal for forage production. Additionally, giant-star grass is drought-resistant and has the ability to withstand continuous grazing. However, giant-star grass is not easy to eradicate once established. This is because it has an extensive root system that makes it difficult to remove from the soil. Even though it can be propagated from young cuttings, it is challenging to get rid of once it has taken root in an area. Therefore, it is important to manage giant-star grass populations to prevent it from becoming invasive and difficult to control.

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The alternate heating and cooling of rocks can cause the rocks to expand and contract. When rocks are heated, they expand, and when they cool down, they contract. If this process of heating and cooling is repeated several times, it can cause the rocks to become stressed, which can lead to the development of cracks and fractures in the rock. The repeated heating and cooling of rocks can cause them to break down into smaller pieces through a process known as fragmentation. The cracks and fractures in the rocks can widen and deepen over time, eventually breaking the rock into smaller pieces. Therefore, the correct answer is "fragmentation."

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Biological control of insect pests involves the use of living organisms to manage the population of pests in crops. Out of the given options, the best way to carry out biological control of insect pests of crops is through the use of parasites and predators. Parasites and predators are natural enemies of insects that feed on or live inside them, ultimately leading to their death or reduced reproduction. Introducing these natural enemies into crop fields can help reduce the population of pests without using harmful chemicals, thus minimizing the environmental impact and preserving beneficial insects. Crop rotation involves alternating crops in a particular field to avoid the buildup of pests that are specific to a particular crop. Farm sanitation entails keeping the farm clean and free of debris to prevent the breeding of pests. These methods can help reduce pest populations but are not as effective as the use of natural enemies. Soil fumigation involves the use of chemicals to kill pests in the soil. This method is effective but also harmful to the environment and other beneficial organisms in the soil. The use of resistant varieties involves planting crops that are naturally resistant to certain pests. However, this method may not be effective against all pests and can lead to the emergence of new resistant strains of pests.

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The livestock parasite that possesses proglottides is the tapeworm. Tapeworms are a type of parasitic flatworm that infect livestock such as cows, sheep, and pigs. They possess proglottides, which are segments that make up the body of the tapeworm. Each proglottid contains reproductive organs and can produce eggs, which are shed in the feces of the host. Proglottides enable tapeworms to reproduce and increase their population within the host's digestive system. They can grow up to several meters long and cause various health problems, including malnutrition and reduced productivity in livestock. In contrast, liver flukes are parasitic flatworms that infect the liver and bile ducts of livestock, while roundworms are long, cylindrical worms that can infect various organs, including the intestines and lungs. Trypanosomes are single-celled parasites that cause African animal trypanosomiasis, while ticks are arthropods that can act as vectors for various diseases in livestock.

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The peculiarity of the intestine tract of a fowl is the possession of a cloaca. A cloaca is a common chamber that receives the digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts. In fowls, the cloaca is the end of the digestive tract, where the faeces, urine, and reproductive products (such as eggs) are excreted. The fowl's digestive system begins with the mouth, where food is ingested and mixed with saliva. From there, it passes down the oesophagus and into the crop, where it is stored and softened. The food then moves to the proventriculus, which is the glandular stomach that secretes digestive enzymes. Next, it moves to the gizzard, a muscular organ that grinds the food into smaller pieces. After this, the food enters the small intestine, where most of the nutrients are absorbed. Finally, the waste products pass into the cloaca, where they are eliminated from the body. Fowls have a unique digestive system that is adapted for their diet of grains and seeds. The possession of a cloaca allows for efficient excretion of waste products and also enables the transfer of sperm during mating.

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The breed of goat popularly kept mainly for its skin is the Sokoto Red. This breed of goat is known for its high-quality skin, which is used in the production of leather products. The skin is durable, smooth, and attractive, and it is highly valued in the leather industry. The Sokoto Red goat is also a good source of meat and milk, but its skin is the main reason for its popularity. This breed of goat is primarily found in the Northern part of Nigeria and is well adapted to the harsh climatic conditions of the region.

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The chromosomes in a cell are located in the nucleus. The nucleus is the control center of the cell and contains most of the cell's genetic material in the form of DNA. Chromosomes are long, coiled-up strands of DNA that contain genes, which are the units of heredity that determine an organism's characteristics. The nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear membrane that separates it from the rest of the cell. The other organelles mentioned - cell wall, golgi body, vacuole, and mitochondrion - do not contain the chromosomes.

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The process by which a forest is renewed artificially is known as forest regeneration. Forest regeneration involves the intentional planting of new trees to replace the ones that have been harvested or lost due to natural causes. It can also involve techniques such as coppicing and pollarding, which encourage the regrowth of new shoots from the stumps of felled trees. The goal of forest regeneration is to maintain the ecological balance of a forest while also providing a sustainable supply of timber and other forest products.

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The importance of fish farming includes the following: 1. Supply of proteins in the diet of man: Fish is a good source of protein, and fish farming can provide a sustainable source of protein for human consumption. 2. Boosting the economic of the country: Fish farming can contribute to the economy of a country by providing income for fish farmers and creating job opportunities in the fish processing and marketing industry. 3. Supply of vitamins in the diet of man: Fish is also a good source of vitamins, such as vitamin D and vitamin B12, which are essential for human health. 4. Provision of employment for people: Fish farming can provide employment opportunities for people in rural and coastal areas, where job opportunities may be limited. Therefore, the option that is NOT a benefit of fish farming is "discharge of waste used in the control of pond's pests". While fish waste can be used as fertilizer in agriculture, it is not commonly used as a method of controlling pests in ponds. Instead, other methods such as biological control and chemical treatments are used to control pests in fish ponds.

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To calculate the amount of humus in the soil sample, we need to use the formula: Humus content = (mass of organic matter / mass of dry soil) x 100 First, we need to find the mass of dry soil. We can do this by subtracting the mass of the dish from the mass of dish and oven-dry soil: Mass of dry soil = Mass of dish and oven-dry soil - Mass of dish Mass of dry soil = 50 g - 10 g Mass of dry soil = 40 g Next, we need to find the mass of organic matter. We can do this by subtracting the mass of the dish and soil after heating from the mass of the dish and oven-dry soil: Mass of organic matter = Mass of dish and oven-dry soil - Mass of dish and soil after heating Mass of organic matter = 50 g - 40 g Mass of organic matter = 10 g Now we can substitute these values into the formula: Humus content = (mass of organic matter / mass of dry soil) x 100 Humus content = (10 g / 40 g) x 100 Humus content = 25% Therefore, the amount of humus in the soil sample is 25% of the dry soil mass, which is equivalent to 10 gm of organic matter. Note: Humus is the organic matter in the soil that is left after decomposition of dead plants and animals. It plays an important role in soil fertility and helps to retain soil moisture.

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Introduction as a method of crop improvement involves bringing in a new variety or species of crop from a different geographical location to an area where it was not previously cultivated. One great disadvantage of this method is the introduction of a new type of disease into the new area of cultivation. The introduced crop may carry pathogens or pests that are not present in the new area, which can lead to the spread of diseases that can be harmful to both the introduced crop and the local crops. This can cause significant economic losses and affect food security. Therefore, it is essential to carefully screen and quarantine any introduced crops to prevent the spread of diseases.

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The humpless breed of cattle which also possess short horns is Muturu. Muturu is a breed of cattle that is native to Nigeria, particularly in the southwestern region. They are known for their humpless body and short horns, which distinguishes them from other breeds such as White Fulani and Red Bororo, which have long horns. Muturu cattle are typically small in size, with a height of around 100-120cm and a weight of 150-250kg. They are valued for their hardiness and ability to thrive in harsh environments with limited resources, such as during the dry season. However, they are also at risk of extinction due to crossbreeding with other breeds and a lack of conservation efforts.

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The maturity period of tomato in days can vary depending on the variety of tomato and growing conditions. However, on average, the maturity period of tomato in days is around 90. This means that from the time tomato plants are sown, it takes about 90 days for the tomato fruits to reach maturity and be ready for harvesting. Some varieties of tomato may have a shorter or longer maturity period than this average, but 90 days is a good estimate for planning and predicting when tomatoes will be ready for harvest.

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The Nigerian Land Use Act of 1978 puts the right ownership of land on the government. The government, through the governor of each state, holds all land in trust for the people and is responsible for managing and administering it. This means that individuals, families, or communities cannot own land outright, but they can only hold the right to use the land. The Act provides for a system of land tenure that is designed to ensure efficient use of land resources and to promote economic development. The government can grant the right to use land to individuals, organizations, or communities for specific purposes such as agriculture, residential, commercial, or industrial activities. The Act also provides for compensation to be paid to those who lose their right to use the land due to government acquisition or development projects.

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Rice blast is caused by a fungus. The fungus Magnaporthe oryzae attacks the leaves, stems, and grains of rice plants, causing large lesions and destroying the plant tissue. This can result in significant losses of rice yield and has a major impact on global food security, as rice is a staple crop for many people around the world.

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Making access roads in a forest plantation is important for fire-fighting purposes. Access roads allow firefighters to quickly and easily access all areas of the forest plantation in the event of a fire outbreak. This can help to contain the fire and prevent it from spreading, minimizing damage to the forest and surrounding areas. Without access roads, firefighters may struggle to reach certain areas, making it difficult to effectively fight the fire. Additionally, access roads can also make it easier to transport equipment and supplies to different parts of the forest plantation, such as weeding tools, fertilizer, mulch, and erosion control measures. This can help to improve the overall health and productivity of the forest plantation.

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The aims of crop improvement include increasing yields, meeting particular needs of growers, meeting the needs of consumers, and adapting to climatic conditions. However, reducing demand for a particular type of crop is not one of the aims of crop improvement. Crop improvement aims to enhance the quality and quantity of crop production to meet the growing demands of the population. Therefore, it focuses on developing new crop varieties that are more resistant to pests and diseases, that can withstand harsh climatic conditions, that can produce higher yields, and that can meet the changing needs of growers and consumers.

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When a piece of land is leased to a farmer, it means that the farmer has been given permission to use the land for agricultural purposes for a specified period of time, usually in exchange for a rental fee. This is known as allocating the land on a rental basis. The farmer does not own the land, but has the right to use it to grow crops or raise livestock during the lease period. The landowner, on the other hand, retains the ownership of the land and is usually responsible for major maintenance and repairs. The lease agreement typically specifies the terms and conditions of the lease, including the duration of the lease, the amount of rent to be paid, and the responsibilities of the farmer and the landowner. At the end of the lease period, the land reverts back to the landowner unless a new lease agreement is negotiated.

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The disease that is not caused by a fungus is streak of maize. Streak of maize is a viral disease that affects maize plants. It is caused by a virus called Maize streak virus (MSV), which is transmitted by leafhoppers. The virus infects the plant and causes streaks or streak-like symptoms on the leaves, stems, and sometimes the cobs of the maize plant. The other diseases listed are all caused by fungi: - Panama disease of banana is caused by the fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense. - Smut of rice is caused by the fungus Ustilago virens. - Mould of stored grain is caused by various species of fungi, such as Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium. - Black pod disease of cocoa is caused by various species of fungi, such as Phytophthora and Moniliophthora. Fungal diseases of crops are common and can cause significant damage to crop yields. It is important to identify the cause of the disease accurately in order to develop effective control measures.

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The factor of production that is not included in the list is marketing. The factors of production refer to the inputs used in the production of goods and services. The traditional factors of production include land, labour, and capital, with management sometimes considered as the fourth factor. Land refers to natural resources such as water, minerals, and soil, which are used in the production process. Labour represents the human effort required to produce goods and services, while capital refers to the tools, machinery, and equipment used in production. Management involves the coordination and organization of the other factors of production to maximize output and profits. Marketing, on the other hand, is not considered a factor of production as it involves the promotion and sale of goods and services after they have been produced. Marketing is a crucial part of business operations as it enables producers to communicate the value of their products to consumers and generate revenue. However, it is not considered a factor of production because it does not directly contribute to the production process itself.

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The first operation in the establishment of a fish pond is the clearing and stumping of the site. This involves the removal of trees, bushes, rocks, and other debris from the area where the pond will be constructed. It is important to clear the site thoroughly to ensure that the pond is free from any obstructions that could cause problems during construction or later when the pond is in use. Stumping of the site also helps to create a smooth and level bottom for the pond, which is important for proper water circulation and drainage. Once the site has been cleared and stumped, the next steps in establishing a fish pond may include the construction of a dam, spillway, and the application of fertilizers. However, these steps cannot be taken until the site has been properly cleared and prepared. Therefore, clearing and stumping of the site is the first and most important operation in the establishment of a fish pond.

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Checking on costs and returns enables the farmer to ascertain the immediate financial position of the farm. When a farmer keeps track of the costs and returns of the farm, they can determine the profit or loss made within a specific period. This information helps the farmer to know the immediate financial position of the farm. They can know how much money they have made and the cost incurred in producing the crops or rearing the animals. The farmer can use this information to make informed decisions on the best practices that will ensure profitability on the farm. It also enables the farmer to know when there is a need to take corrective measures to avoid running at a loss.

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The fruit that has many seeds, with many joined compartments and splits open along all of its seams from the bottom to the top is called a capsule. Capsules are usually dry fruits and can be found in many different types of plants, including flowers, shrubs, and trees. When a capsule is ripe, it splits open, allowing the seeds to be dispersed by wind or other means. Some examples of plants that produce capsules are poppies, iris, and milkweed.

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The statement that is not correct is "the individuals used in cross-breeding have all characters in common". Cross-breeding is the process of breeding two different individuals of the same species with different characteristics or traits to obtain offspring with a combination of desirable traits from both parents. Therefore, the individuals used in cross-breeding have different traits, and the cross-bred progenies are usually heterozygous, meaning they carry two different alleles of the same gene. Cross-breeding can be used to introduce new genes, create new breeds of livestock, and is a routine practice of improving poultry.

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The most effective way of ensuring built-in resistance to disease in calves is to allow them access to colostrum. Colostrum is the first milk produced by the mother cow immediately after calving. It is rich in antibodies, which are transferred to the calf and help to build its immune system. Without colostrum, the calf's immune system is weakened, making it more vulnerable to diseases. Vaccination, regular veterinary check-ups, proper quarantine, and a balanced ration are also important measures in ensuring the health of calves, but access to colostrum is critical for building resistance to disease.

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The statement "fixing of prices of agricultural produce" is not a function of Agricultural Extension. Agricultural Extension involves educating and providing technical assistance to farmers on the latest research findings and their practical applications in solving problems. It also serves as a link between research institutions and farmers, as well as changing farmers' attitudes towards their challenges. However, Agricultural Extension does not involve the fixation of prices of agricultural produce, which is the function of agricultural marketing.

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To find the amount of water needed to mix 20 litres of acaricide, we can use the ratio of acaricide to water given in the instruction. The ratio of acaricide to water is: 1 litre of acaricide : 175 litres of water To mix 20 litres of acaricide, we can set up a proportion: 1 litre of acaricide / 175 litres of water = 20 litres of acaricide / x litres of water where x is the amount of water needed to mix 20 litres of acaricide. Solving for x: x = (175 x 20) / 1 x = 3,500 litres Therefore, the livestock farmer needs 3,500 litres of water to mix 20 litres of acaricide. The correct option is: 3500 litres

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To calculate the percentage of humus in the soil sample, we need to use the formula: Percentage of humus = (Loss on ignition / Mass of oven-dry soil) x 100% Where "Loss on ignition" is the weight difference between the dish and oven-dry soil and the dish and soil after heating. Using the given values: Mass of dish = 10 gm Mass of dish and oven-dry soil = 50 gm Mass of dish and soil after heating = 40 gm Mass of oven-dry soil = Mass of dish and oven-dry soil - Mass of dish = 50 gm - 10 gm = 40 gm Loss on ignition = Mass of dish and oven-dry soil - Mass of dish and soil after heating = 50 gm - 40 gm = 10 gm Percentage of humus = (Loss on ignition / Mass of oven-dry soil) x 100% = (10 gm / 40 gm) x 100% = 25% Therefore, the percentage of humus in the soil sample is 25%. The correct option is "25%".

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The factor that will not influence the use of land for farming is "light intensity." Light intensity is not a factor that directly affects land use for farming because it is not related to the physical characteristics of the land. Light intensity is important for plant growth and photosynthesis, but it is not a factor that determines whether land is suitable for farming or not. On the other hand, factors such as population density, climatic condition, topography, and type of vegetation are crucial in determining the suitability of land for farming because they affect the physical, biological, and social aspects of the land.

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Improving the quality of feeds will not be an effect of excessive amount of water content in feeds. Excessive water content in feeds can have several negative effects on the quality and safety of the feed. It can lead to the growth of molds and bacteria, which can produce toxic substances that can harm the animals that consume the feed. Excess water can also dilute the nutrient content of the feed, leading to a decrease in its nutritional value. Furthermore, excess water can stimulate fermentation in the feed, leading to spoilage and decreased palatability. However, it is unlikely that excess water content in feeds would improve their quality in any way.

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The option that is not an effect of bush burning on the soil is "maintaining high levels of soil nutrients reserves." Bush burning is a traditional practice of burning grasses and bushes in farmland, which has both negative and positive effects on the soil. The burning of vegetation can destroy the structure of the soil and expose it to erosion, making it more susceptible to water runoff. Also, the heat from the fire can sterilize the soil against some beneficial soil microorganisms. On the positive side, bush burning can increase the rate of nitrogen mineralization in the soil, making nutrients more available to plants. However, it does not maintain high levels of soil nutrient reserves because the ash produced by bush burning usually contains a limited amount of nutrients, which are quickly leached out by rainfall.

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The protective functions of forests include soil conservation, windbreak, wildlife conservation, erosion control, and more. However, being a tourist attraction is not considered a protective function of forests. Tourist attraction refers to the recreational and economic benefits that forests can provide, but it does not have a direct protective function. While forests can be a great source of tourism, providing an opportunity for visitors to appreciate the natural beauty and wildlife of the forest, this does not necessarily contribute to the protective functions of forests. Protective functions focus on the ecological and environmental benefits of forests, which include the conservation of natural resources and the protection of wildlife habitats.

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The texture and mineral composition of soil depend mainly on the parent material. Parent material refers to the rock or sediment from which the soil is formed. The characteristics of the parent material, such as its mineral composition and structure, can have a significant impact on the physical and chemical properties of the soil. For example, a soil formed from granite will have a different texture and mineral composition than a soil formed from limestone. Other factors such as climate, vegetation, and time can also influence the soil's properties, but the parent material is considered the primary factor that determines the texture and mineral composition of the soil.

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The structure that does not serve a protective function is bone. Bones serve a supportive function in the body, providing structural support and protection for vital organs. Hooves, skin, feathers, and hair all serve a protective function by providing a physical barrier to the external environment and helping to regulate body temperature.

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The most important economic factor that determines the quality of cassava a consumer will demand is the price of cassava. This is because price is a major determinant of consumer behavior and purchasing power. If the price of cassava is too high, consumers may opt for cheaper alternatives such as yam or rice. On the other hand, if the price is reasonable, consumers are more likely to demand for cassava especially if it meets their taste and quality preferences. Therefore, price plays a crucial role in determining the quantity of cassava that will be demanded by consumers.

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A biotic factor influencing agricultural production is a predator. A predator is an animal that hunts and feeds on other animals, including livestock and crops. Predators can have a significant impact on agricultural production by reducing crop yields and causing damage to livestock. For example, birds can eat crops such as maize, sorghum, and sunflower, while animals like foxes, wolves, and coyotes can prey on livestock such as goats, sheep, and cows. To minimize the impact of predators on agricultural production, farmers can use various strategies such as fencing, netting, and chemical repellents.

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Granite is an example of an igneous rock. Igneous rocks are formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. Granite is formed by the slow cooling and solidification of magma deep within the Earth's crust. It is a coarse-grained rock that is composed of minerals such as quartz, feldspar, and mica. It is widely used in construction as a building material due to its durability and strength.

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Carbohydrates are an essential component of livestock feed, providing them with energy to carry out various body functions. The most important source of carbohydrate in livestock feed is maize. Maize contains a high level of starch, which is easily digestible by animals and provides a lot of energy. In addition, maize is readily available and relatively affordable, making it a popular choice for livestock feed. Other options like guinea corn, sorghum, rice bran, and wheat bran also contain carbohydrates, but maize is considered the most important source.

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A perennial is a crop that can grow and produce fruits for more than two years. This means that once it is planted, it will continue to produce fruits year after year without the need for replanting. Other crops may only reach maturity early and stop producing fruits before two years or stop producing fruit two years after planting, but perennials are different in that they have a longer lifespan and can continue to bear fruits for several years.

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The blind sacs at the junction of the small and large intestines of a fowl are called caeca. Caeca are two small pouches or sacs that are located at the beginning of the large intestine in birds. They are present in many bird species, including chickens and other poultry. The caeca serve as a site for fermentation of undigested food material, especially cellulose, which is a complex carbohydrate that birds cannot digest on their own. The fermentation process in the caeca helps to break down the cellulose into simpler compounds that the bird can absorb and utilize for energy. The caeca also play a role in the immune system of the bird, as they contain lymphoid tissue that helps to protect against disease.

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The statement is saying that adopting clean clearing of land in the tropical rainforest is not advisable and the question is asking for the reason why. The answer is option A, which states that it encourages erosion and leaching. This is because clean clearing involves the removal of all vegetation, including roots and debris, which leaves the soil exposed to erosion by wind and water. The organic matter that would have been left behind to decay and provide nutrients to the soil is also removed, which leads to leaching of nutrients. Therefore, clean clearing is not recommended as it has negative effects on the soil and the environment in general.

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The word 'except' in the question indicates that one option out of the five given is not a common management practice in pastures. Therefore, the answer is 'overstocking'. The other options are commonly used management practices in pastures. Rotational grazing involves moving animals between paddocks to allow the pasture to rest and recover, leading to sustainable use. Weed and pest control is essential in pasture management as it ensures that the growth of desirable plants is not affected by unwanted plants and pests. Fertilizer application is necessary for promoting plant growth in pastures. Paddocking involves dividing a large pasture into smaller areas to facilitate grazing management, while overstocking refers to putting more animals on the pasture than it can support, leading to overgrazing and reduced productivity.

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The husbandry practice that is not carried out in pig farming is "shearing of hairs of the skin". This is because pigs have hair rather than wool, and hair does not need to be sheared like wool. In pig farming, castration of excess males is often carried out to prevent unwanted breeding and improve the quality of meat. Application of iron supplements is done to prevent anemia in piglets. Numbering by ear notching or tattooing is used for identification and record-keeping purposes. Dipping or spraying of animals is done to control external parasites and prevent the spread of diseases. Overall, each of these practices is aimed at improving the health and welfare of the pigs, as well as the quality of the meat they produce.

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The statement that is not a function of Agricultural Extension is "fixing of prices of agricultural produce". Agricultural Extension is a service that provides information, advice, and training to farmers, with the goal of improving their agricultural practices and increasing their productivity. It acts as a link between the research institutes and farmers, provides farmers with the research findings and their application to the solution of farmers problems, changes farmers outlook towards their problems, and teaches people in rural areas how to raise their standard of living. However, fixing of prices of agricultural produce is a function of government agencies or bodies responsible for regulating the prices of agricultural produce in the market.

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a) Six relationships between Agriculture and Industries are:

1. Agriculture provides raw materials for industries. Industries such as food processing, textile, and pharmaceutical rely on agricultural products such as crops and livestock for their production.
2. Industries provide agricultural inputs. Industries such as fertilizer and seed companies provide inputs such as fertilizers and seeds to farmers.
3. Agriculture provides employment opportunities. Industries such as agro-processing and manufacturing employ a significant number of people who work in agriculture.
4. Agriculture drives economic growth. Industries such as transportation and marketing rely on agricultural products to generate income, which helps to drive economic growth.
5. Agriculture influences technological advancements. Innovations in agriculture, such as precision farming and biotechnology, can have a significant impact on industries such as manufacturing and biotechnology.
6. Industries can impact the environment. Industries such as mining and manufacturing can have negative environmental impacts on agriculture and farming communities.

b) Six factors affecting the success of commercial agriculture in Nigeria are:

1. Access to finance: Commercial agriculture requires a significant amount of capital for land acquisition, inputs, and machinery. Lack of access to finance can limit the ability of farmers to expand their operations.
2. Infrastructure: Adequate infrastructure, such as roads and transportation networks, is necessary for the efficient distribution of agricultural products to markets.
3. Land tenure: Clear land tenure systems can provide farmers with the security they need to make long-term investments in their farms.
4. Climate variability: Climate variability, such as droughts and floods, can significantly impact agricultural production and yield.
5. Pest and disease management: Pests and diseases can cause significant damage to crops and livestock, affecting the productivity and profitability of farms.
6. Market access: Access to markets and marketing information is critical for farmers to get fair prices for their products and to make informed decisions about what to produce.

c) Eight agricultural research institutes in Nigeria are:

1. International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA)
2. National Root Crops Research Institute (NRCRI)
3. National Cereals Research Institute (NCRI)
4. National Horticultural Research Institute (NIHORT)
5. Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria (CRIN)
6. Institute of Agricultural Research and Training (IAR&T)
7. Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm Research (NIFOR)
8. National Agricultural Extension and Research Liaison Services (NAERLS)

These institutes are responsible for conducting research on various aspects of agriculture, including crop and livestock production, soil management, pest and disease control, and agricultural policy development. The research findings and innovations generated by these institutes can have a significant impact on agricultural productivity, sustainability, and profitability in Nigeria.

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(a) Reasons why farm accounts should be kept by a farmer include:

• To know the cost of production and profitability of the farm.
• To aid in decision-making regarding what crops to plant and when to plant them.
• To help in obtaining loans from financial institutions.
• To monitor and control farm expenses.
• To comply with tax laws and regulations.
• To provide a record of farm operations and activities.

(b) Profit and loss account for Ada Farms for the year ending December, 1993:

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(a) Here is an annotated diagram of the water cycle:

The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle, is the continuous movement of water between the Earth's surface and atmosphere. The process begins with the sun's heat causing water to evaporate from bodies of water and transpire from plants. This water vapor then rises into the atmosphere, where it cools and condenses into clouds. The clouds then release precipitation in the form of rain or snow, which replenishes bodies of water or infiltrates into the ground. The cycle then repeats itself.

(b) Three forms in which water exists in the soil are:

• Gravitational water: This is the water that moves downward through the soil due to gravity after a rain or irrigation event. It is not held by the soil particles and can be lost through drainage.
• Capillary water: This is the water that is held by the soil particles and is available for plant uptake. It is held in small pores and can move upward against gravity due to capillary action.
• Hygroscopic water: This is the water that is held tightly to the soil particles and is not available for plant uptake. It is held too tightly for roots to extract it.

(c) Five importance of water to crops are:

1. Photosynthesis: Water is a key component in the photosynthesis process, which is how plants produce their food. Without water, photosynthesis cannot occur, and the plant will not be able to grow and produce.
2. Nutrient uptake: Water is necessary for the uptake of nutrients by plants. Nutrients dissolve in water and are transported to the plant roots for uptake. Without water, nutrients cannot be taken up by the plant.
3. Turgor pressure: Water helps to maintain turgor pressure in plant cells, which gives the plant its structure and support. Without water, plants can wilt and become damaged.
4. Temperature regulation: Water helps to regulate the temperature of plant leaves through transpiration. When water evaporates from the leaves, it cools the plant and prevents it from overheating.
5. Yield and quality: Adequate water supply is necessary for plants to produce high yields and quality crops. Water stress can lead to reduced yields and poor crop quality.

Overall, water is essential for plant growth and development, and its availability is a critical factor in crop production.

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(a) Four common survey equipment or tools and their various uses are:

1. Total Station: This is an electronic device used in measuring distances, angles, and elevations. It is commonly used for creating maps, determining property boundaries, and designing infrastructure.
2. Global Positioning System (GPS): This is a satellite-based system used for locating positions on the earth’s surface. It is used in agriculture for precision farming, mapping, and navigation.
3. Automatic Levels: This is a tool used for determining elevations and contours of a piece of land. It is used in agriculture for designing irrigation systems and land leveling.
4. Theodolite: This is an optical instrument used for measuring angles in both horizontal and vertical planes. It is used in agriculture for laying out roads, designing terraces, and establishing property boundaries.

(b) The importance of farm surveying and planning in agriculture are:

1. Optimum land use: Surveying and planning help farmers to identify the most suitable areas for different crops, livestock production, and other agricultural activities. This ensures that the land is used efficiently and productively.
2. Precision farming: Farm surveying and planning help farmers to implement precision farming techniques, which can increase crop yields and reduce input costs.
3. Soil conservation: Proper surveying and planning help to minimize soil erosion, improve soil fertility, and reduce the risk of soil degradation.
4. Resource management: Farm surveying and planning help farmers to manage their resources effectively, including water, land, and energy. This can lead to greater efficiency and sustainability in agricultural production.
5. Cost-effective design: Surveying and planning can help farmers to design cost-effective irrigation systems, drainage systems, and other infrastructure. This can reduce the cost of production and increase profitability.
6. Legal compliance: Surveying and planning help farmers to comply with legal requirements such as property boundaries, environmental regulations, and zoning laws.

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a) Soil pH: Soil pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of soil. It is a very important factor for plant growth because it affects the availability of essential nutrients to plants. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. A pH value below 7 indicates acidic soil, while a pH value above 7 indicates alkaline soil. Most plants grow well in soil with a pH between 6 and 7.5.

b) Soil texture: Soil texture refers to the proportion of sand, silt, and clay particles in the soil. It is an important characteristic of soil because it affects soil water-holding capacity, nutrient availability, and aeration. Sandy soils have large particles and drain water quickly, while clay soils have small particles and hold water and nutrients more effectively. Loam soils have a mixture of sand, silt, and clay particles and are ideal for plant growth.

c) Soil organisms: Soil organisms refer to the living organisms that inhabit soil, including bacteria, fungi, insects, worms, and rodents. They play a vital role in soil fertility by decomposing organic matter, cycling nutrients, and improving soil structure. Some soil organisms are beneficial to plants, while others can be harmful.

d) Soil profile: Soil profile refers to the vertical arrangement of soil layers or horizons. It is an important characteristic of soil because it provides information about the soil's physical and chemical properties. The soil profile is composed of several horizons, including the topsoil, subsoil, and parent material. The topsoil is the upper layer of soil, where most of the organic matter and nutrients are found. The subsoil is the layer beneath the topsoil, where minerals are found. The parent material is the layer at the bottom of the soil profile, which is made up of rocks and minerals.

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(a)

1. (i) Four advantages of the deep litter system in poultry management are:

   • It is cost-effective as it requires less labour and materials compared to other systems.
   • It provides insulation for the birds, keeping them warm in cold weather.
   • It allows for natural scratching and foraging behavior in the birds, promoting their welfare.
   • The litter can be used as a fertilizer for crops when properly managed.

2. (ii) Four disadvantages of the deep litter system in poultry management are:

   • It requires frequent cleaning and maintenance to prevent disease and odor.
   • It can lead to a buildup of ammonia and other harmful gases if not properly managed.
   • It may attract pests such as rodents and flies.
   • The litter can become wet and compacted, leading to poor ventilation and increased risk of disease.

(b) One disadvantage of using sawdust as litter in a deep-litter house is that it may become compacted and wet, leading to poor ventilation and increased risk of disease. Sawdust also has a high moisture content, which can lead to the growth of harmful bacteria if not managed properly.

(c) The recommended floor space for fowls in a deep litter house is three (3) adult fowls per square metre. Therefore, in a deep-litter house of size 10 metres by 50 metres, the total area is 500 square metres. Hence, the number of adult fowls that can be kept in this house is 3 x 500 = 1500 adult fowls.

(d) Three other methods of keeping poultry are:

1. Battery Cage System: This system involves housing birds in individual cages that are stacked on top of one another. It is a high-density system that maximizes space and allows for easy management and disease control.
2. Free-Range System: This system allows birds to roam freely outdoors during the day and return to a shelter at night. It promotes natural behavior and improves the quality of the meat and eggs produced.
3. Colony System: This system involves housing birds in small groups in a communal space. It allows for social interaction between birds and promotes natural behavior, but may be more difficult to manage compared to other systems.

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(a) Land Preparation: The first step in the cultivation of maize is to prepare the land. This involves clearing the field of any debris or weeds, and then plowing or tilling the soil to make it suitable for planting.

(b) Propagation: Maize is propagated by seed. The seeds should be of good quality and free from disease. It is best to use hybrid varieties that are resistant to pests and diseases.

(c) Planting Date: The planting date for maize depends on the location and climate. In general, maize should be planted during the rainy season to ensure adequate moisture for germination and growth.

(d) Seed Rate: The recommended seed rate for maize is between 8-10 kg per acre.

(e) Spacing: Maize should be planted at a spacing of 75-90 cm between rows and 20-25 cm between plants.

(f) Fertilizer Requirement: Maize requires a lot of nutrients for optimal growth and yield. The recommended fertilizer application rate is 60-90 kg per acre of nitrogen, 30-45 kg per acre of phosphorus, and 30-45 kg per acre of potassium.

(g) Weeding: Weeding is important in maize cultivation to control weeds that compete with the crop for nutrients, water, and sunlight. It is recommended to weed the field at least twice during the growing season.

(h) Harvesting: Maize is ready for harvesting when the ears are fully mature and the kernels are hard and dry. The best way to harvest maize is to cut the stalks at ground level and then remove the ears from the stalks.

(i) Storage: After harvesting, the maize should be stored in a dry and well-ventilated area to prevent spoilage. It is recommended to use airtight containers or bags to store the maize to prevent insect and rodent infestations.

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(a) Blackpod of cocoa is a fungal disease that affects the pods of cocoa trees. It is caused by several species of fungi, including Phytophthora palmivora and Phytophthora megakarya. The disease starts as small black spots on the pods, which then enlarge and turn into a soft, mushy rot. The infected pods eventually fall from the tree, reducing the yield of cocoa beans. Blackpod of cocoa is a serious problem in cocoa-growing regions, and control measures include the use of fungicides, proper pruning of the trees, and the removal of infected pods from the plantation.

(b) Leaf blight of cassava is a fungal disease that affects the leaves of cassava plants. It is caused by the fungus Cercospora sp. The disease starts as small brown or yellow spots on the leaves, which then enlarge and merge, causing the leaves to turn brown and dry up. Severe infections can cause defoliation, reducing the yield of cassava tubers. Leaf blight of cassava is a major problem in areas where cassava is a staple food crop, and control measures include the use of fungicides, crop rotation, and the planting of resistant varieties of cassava.

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(a) A balanced ration is a diet that provides all the nutrients in appropriate amounts to meet the specific nutritional needs of an animal for its desired level of production or performance. It contains all the essential nutrients like proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water in the correct proportions to maintain the animal's health, growth, reproduction, and production.

(b) The stages involved in the preparation of each of the following animal feed ingredients are:

(i) Bone meal: This is a by-product of the meat industry and is made from ground animal bones. The stages involved in its preparation include:

• - Collection of bones: Bones from slaughtered animals are collected and cleaned.
• - Crushing: The bones are crushed into small pieces or powder.
• - Heating: The crushed bones are heated at a high temperature to remove any remaining tissue and fat and to kill any harmful microorganisms.
• - Grinding: The heated bones are ground into fine powder.
• - Packaging: The bone meal is packaged and stored for use as a feed ingredient.

(ii) Blood meal: This is made from the blood of slaughtered animals and is a good source of protein for animals. The stages involved in its preparation include:

• - Collection: Blood is collected from slaughtered animals in a sterile container.
• - Drying: The collected blood is dried by heat, spray or drum drying.
• - Grinding: The dried blood is then ground into a fine powder.
• - Packaging: The blood meal is packaged and stored for use as a feed ingredient.

(iii) Fish meal: This is made from whole fish or fish parts and is a good source of protein and omega-3 fatty acids for animals. The stages involved in its preparation include:

• - Collection: Whole fish or fish parts are collected and cleaned.
• - Cooking: The fish or fish parts are cooked to remove moisture and to coagulate the protein.
• - Pressing: The cooked fish or fish parts are pressed to remove the oil and water.
• - Drying: The pressed material is dried to remove any remaining moisture.
• - Grinding: The dried material is ground into a fine powder.
• - Packaging: The fish meal is packaged and stored for use as a feed ingredient.

(iv) Cottonseed meal: This is made from the cottonseed that remains after the extraction of oil. The stages involved in its preparation include:

• - Collection: The cottonseed is collected after the oil is extracted.
• - Heating: The collected cottonseed is heated to remove any remaining oil.
• - Grinding: The heated cottonseed is ground into a fine powder.
• - Packaging: The cottonseed meal is packaged and stored for use as a feed ingredient.

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a)

(i) The law of supply states that, all other things being equal, the quantity of a good or service supplied will increase as its price increases, and vice versa. This means that when the price of an agricultural product increases, farmers will be motivated to produce more of it in order to earn higher profits. On the other hand, if the price of the product decreases, farmers will be less motivated to produce it.

(ii) An example of a supply schedule for maize is as follows:

The supply curve for maize would be upward sloping, showing that as the price of maize increases, the quantity supplied increases as well.

b)

Five causes of change in supply of an agricultural produce include:

1. Changes in technology: Advances in agricultural technology can increase the efficiency of production, leading to an increase in supply.
2. Changes in input prices: Increases in the cost of inputs such as labor, fertilizer, and fuel can decrease the supply of a product.
3. Weather conditions: Weather can have a significant impact on agricultural production. Droughts, floods, and other extreme weather events can reduce the supply of a product.
4. Changes in government policies: Government policies such as taxes, subsidies, and import/export restrictions can affect the supply of agricultural products.
5. Changes in the number of producers: The entry or exit of producers from a market can affect the overall supply of a product.