JAMB UTME - Government - 2013

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A constitution that is difficult to amend is called "rigid". This means that the process for changing the constitution is deliberately made difficult and requires a high level of consensus or agreement among the governing bodies or the citizens. In some cases, it may even require a referendum or a constitutional convention to make changes. Rigid constitutions are designed to protect fundamental principles and rights from being easily changed by the government or ruling party. They are often written and codified, meaning that the constitution is a formal document that is separate from other laws and is more difficult to change. This is different from a "flexible" constitution, which is easier to amend and allows for changes to be made more quickly and easily. Flexible constitutions are often unwritten and based on traditions and customs rather than formal documents. Overall, a rigid constitution can provide greater stability and protection for citizens' rights, but can also make it difficult to adapt to changing circumstances or address pressing issues.

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Citizenship by birth cannot be withdrawn. Citizenship by birth means that an individual automatically becomes a citizen of a country based on their place of birth, regardless of the citizenship of their parents. This type of citizenship is often referred to as "jus soli" citizenship. Once an individual has acquired citizenship by birth, it cannot be taken away unless there are specific circumstances, such as if the individual has committed a serious crime or has been found to have obtained their citizenship fraudulently. This type of citizenship is considered to be the most secure, as it is based on a person's fundamental right to a nationality and cannot be taken away without due process.

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A de jure sovereign is acquired through law, which means it is obtained through legal means, such as a constitution or legislation. In other words, a de jure sovereign has legitimacy because it has been established and recognized through a lawful process. This is in contrast to a de facto sovereign, which is a ruler or government that has control over a territory but is not officially recognized as legitimate.

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The judiciary controls the executive in federal states through judicial review. Judicial review is the power of the courts to review the actions of the executive and legislative branches of government and determine whether they are consistent with the constitution and other laws. In a federal system, the constitution and laws allocate specific powers and responsibilities to the federal government and the state governments. The judiciary ensures that these powers are exercised within their constitutional limits by the federal and state governments. For example, if the executive branch of a federal government takes an action that is seen as unconstitutional or exceeds its powers, the courts have the authority to declare the action null and void. The courts can also issue orders to stop or prevent the government from taking similar actions in the future. Judicial review is an important mechanism for ensuring that the government is accountable to the people and operates within the framework of the law. It is a critical check on the power of the executive and legislative branches and helps to maintain the balance of power in a federal system of government.

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The term that refers to rule by old people is "gerontocracy." Gerontocracy comes from the Greek words "geron," meaning "old man," and "kratia," meaning "rule or power." In a gerontocracy, the people who hold power and make decisions are typically older individuals who are respected for their age and wisdom. This form of governance is based on the belief that older people have more experience, knowledge, and wisdom than younger generations and, therefore, should lead the society. Gerontocracy has been practiced in some societies throughout history, but it is not very common in modern times.

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A public corporation is managed by a group of individuals known as the "board of directors." This board is responsible for making decisions about the corporation's overall strategy and direction, including appointing the CEO or general manager to run the day-to-day operations. The board is typically composed of a group of elected or appointed individuals who represent the interests of the corporation's shareholders or stakeholders. The board has a legal and fiduciary responsibility to act in the best interests of the corporation and its shareholders.

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Socialism advocates for equitable distribution of wealth. Socialism is a political and economic system in which the means of production, such as factories, farms, and other resources, are owned and controlled by the community as a whole, rather than by individuals or corporations. Under socialism, wealth is distributed more equitably among all members of society, with the goal of reducing poverty, inequality, and social stratification. In a socialist system, the government plays a large role in ensuring that wealth is distributed equitably. This may include implementing progressive taxation policies, providing social welfare programs, and regulating the economy to prevent extreme wealth accumulation by a small group of individuals. Overall, socialism seeks to create a more equal and just society by reducing the power and influence of the wealthy and promoting greater economic and social equality among all members of society. It is seen as a response to the inequalities and injustices that can arise under capitalist systems, which prioritize profit over the welfare of the community.

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The unitary system tends to make government strong and stable. This is because power is concentrated in a central government, which can make and enforce decisions quickly and efficiently. The central government has the authority to implement policies throughout the entire country, without having to negotiate or compromise with regional governments. This can lead to a more consistent application of policies and laws across the entire country, which can promote stability and predictability. Additionally, the central government is typically better equipped to respond to national emergencies or crises, as it has more resources and authority than regional governments.

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Under Nigeria's Second Republic, the Senate was under the leadership of Joseph Wayas. Joseph Wayas was a Nigerian politician who served as the President of the Nigerian Senate during the Second Republic from 1979 to 1983. He was a member of the National Party of Nigeria (NPN) and was elected to the Senate from his home state of Cross River. As the Senate President, Wayas presided over the Senate's proceedings and played a crucial role in shaping Nigeria's political landscape during the Second Republic. He was known for his strong leadership skills, diplomacy, and commitment to promoting the interests of the Nigerian people. During his tenure, Wayas worked closely with other political leaders to promote unity and national development. He was instrumental in the passage of several key legislative initiatives, including the Nigerian National Youth Service Corps (NYSC) Act and the Nigerian Social Insurance Trust Fund (NSITF) Act. Overall, Joseph Wayas is widely regarded as one of Nigeria's most influential political leaders and a key figure in the country's history.

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Nigeria has played a significant role in the African Union (AU) since its inception. However, the country's most prominent role in the AU was during the regime of President Olusegun Obasanjo, who served as President from 1999 to 2007. During his tenure, President Obasanjo was a vocal advocate for African unity and played a key role in promoting peace and stability in various African countries. He also led efforts to strengthen the AU, including pushing for the establishment of the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) and advocating for the African Peer Review Mechanism (APRM) to promote good governance and democracy. Under President Obasanjo's leadership, Nigeria also contributed troops to peacekeeping missions in several African countries, including Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Sudan. Overall, President Obasanjo's leadership and vision for African unity and development helped to elevate Nigeria's role in the African Union and on the global stage.

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Justice Akinola Aguda headed the committee that recommended the suitability of Abuja as a new federal city. In the 1970s, the Nigerian government decided to establish a new federal capital city that would be located in a central and more secure location, away from the coastal areas of Lagos. To achieve this, a committee was set up to recommend a suitable location for the new city. Justice Akinola Aguda, a distinguished jurist and legal scholar, was appointed as the chairman of the committee. The committee considered several factors, including the geographic location, availability of land, and potential for development, before recommending Abuja as the site for the new federal capital city. Aguda's recommendation was based on the city's strategic location, as it was situated in the center of Nigeria and had easy access to major road networks, making it easily accessible from different parts of the country. Additionally, Abuja was a relatively undeveloped area at the time, which provided ample room for growth and development. The government accepted the committee's recommendation, and work began on the construction of the new federal capital city, which would eventually become known as Abuja. Today, Abuja is the capital of Nigeria and is home to several government institutions and international organizations.

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The highest policy-making body under the Gowon Regime was the Supreme Military Council. The Gowon regime was a military government that ruled Nigeria from 1966 to 1975, and the Supreme Military Council (SMC) was the highest decision-making body during this period. It was composed of the head of state, who was also the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and other high-ranking military officers. The SMC had the power to make policies and decisions on all matters related to the governance of the country, including national security, foreign policy, and economic development. It was the ultimate authority in the country during the Gowon regime and had the power to make decisions without reference to any other body or institution.

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One of the functions of pressure groups is to articulate the opinion of their members. Pressure groups are organizations that bring together individuals who share a common interest or concern and aim to influence government policy or decision-making. They provide a platform for their members to voice their opinions and concerns, and to advocate for change. The goal of pressure groups is to represent the interests of their members and to influence the decisions and actions of those in positions of power, such as elected officials and government agencies. By articulating the opinions and concerns of their members, pressure groups can help shape public policy and bring attention to important issues.

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Aristotle believed that an aristocracy is a form of government where a small group of people, who are considered to be the best and most virtuous, rule for the benefit of all. This means that decisions made by the rulers are meant to benefit everyone, not just themselves or a specific group. Essentially, an aristocracy is a government by the wise and good, who are chosen to lead because of their qualities and virtues.

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The main representative body of the United Nations is the General Assembly. The General Assembly is made up of representatives from all 193 member states of the UN, and it meets annually to discuss and coordinate on important international issues such as peace and security, human rights, and economic development. Each member state has one vote in the General Assembly, regardless of its size or wealth. While the General Assembly does not have the power to enforce its decisions, it serves as an important forum for member states to share their perspectives and engage in diplomatic negotiations. In contrast, the Security Council is responsible for maintaining international peace and security and has the power to make binding decisions, including the authorization of military action. The Trusteeship Council oversaw the administration of trust territories, which have all now achieved self-governance or independence. The Secretariat, on the other hand, is responsible for carrying out the day-to-day work of the UN and providing administrative support to the other organs.

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The centerpiece of Nigeria's foreign policy covers Africa. Nigeria has a long-standing commitment to promoting peace, stability, and development across the African continent. This commitment is rooted in Nigeria's historical role in Africa's struggle for independence and its position as the most populous country on the continent. Nigeria has played a leading role in the African Union (AU), the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and other regional organizations that promote African unity and development. The country has also contributed troops and resources to peacekeeping missions in various African countries, including Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Sudan. In addition to promoting peace and stability, Nigeria has also pursued economic cooperation and trade with other African countries. The country has played a key role in establishing the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA), which aims to create a single market for goods and services across the continent. Overall, Nigeria's foreign policy focus on Africa reflects the country's commitment to promoting the continent's socio-economic and political development and ensuring that it plays a leading role in the region.

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Political socialization is associated with the transmission of political values from one generation to another, and from one individual to another. It is a process by which individuals acquire their political attitudes, beliefs, and values, as well as their understanding of how the political system works. This process typically begins in childhood and continues throughout an individual's life, as they interact with family members, peers, teachers, and the media. During political socialization, individuals learn about their political system, political parties, and political leaders. They also learn about their rights and responsibilities as citizens, and how to participate in the political process. The transmission of political values through political socialization is critical for the stability and continuity of a political system. It ensures that citizens understand and support the political institutions and processes that govern their lives, and are able to make informed decisions when they participate in elections and other political activities. Overall, political socialization plays a crucial role in shaping the political attitudes and behaviors of individuals, and in ensuring the legitimacy and effectiveness of a political system.

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The call for a West African community was made by President William Tubman of Liberia in 1964. An agreement was signed among Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone in February 1965, but this came to nothing.

In April 1972, General Gowon of Nigeria and General Eyadema of Togo re-launched the idea, drew up proposals and toured 12 countries, soliciting their plan from July to August 1973. A meeting was then called at Lomé from 10-15 December 1973, which studied a draft treaty. This was further examined at a meeting of experts and jurists in Accra in January 1974 and by a ministerial meeting in Monrovia in January 1975. Finally, 15 West African countries signed the treaty for an Economic Community of West African States (Treaty of Lagos) on 28 May 1975. The protocols launching ECOWAS were signed in Lomé, Togo, on 5 November 1976. In 1977 Cape Verde joined ECOWAS, while in 2002 Mauritania withdrew form the Community.

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As an executive, the commissioner is responsible for implementing laws. This means that they have the duty to make sure that laws are followed and enforced by individuals, organizations, and government agencies. They do not write or make laws themselves, but they ensure that laws passed by the legislative branch are carried out properly. They also do not give loans, as that is not a responsibility of the executive branch.

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The Revenue Mobilization, Allocation and Fiscal Commission (RMAFC) is statutorily empowered to determine the remuneration of political office holders. Political office holders are individuals who hold positions of power and influence in government, such as the President, Vice President, Governors, Senators, etc. The RMAFC is responsible for setting the salaries, allowances and other forms of remuneration for these individuals. This is important because it helps ensure that political office holders are paid fairly and in line with the country's economic realities, while also promoting transparency and accountability in government spending.

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The organ of the United Nations that promotes voluntary cooperation among member states in diverse areas is the "Economic and Social Council" (ECOSOC). ECOSOC is responsible for promoting sustainable development, improving living standards, and addressing economic, social, and humanitarian issues. It serves as a forum for member states to discuss and coordinate their economic and social policies, and to develop and implement international agreements in these areas. ECOSOC has 54 members, which are elected by the General Assembly for three-year terms. It meets regularly throughout the year, and also convenes special sessions and conferences on specific issues. Overall, ECOSOC plays a key role in promoting international cooperation and addressing global challenges in areas such as poverty, health, education, and human rights.

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Under the Technical Aid Corps, Nigerian experts are deployed to African countries, as well as countries in the Pacific and the Caribbean region. The Technical Aid Corps is a program created by the Nigerian government to provide technical assistance and aid to developing countries. Nigerian experts, such as doctors, engineers, and teachers, are sent to work in these countries for a period of time, providing their expertise and knowledge to help with development efforts. The program focuses on countries in Africa, as well as those in the Pacific and Caribbean regions, where Nigeria has historically had strong cultural and economic ties. By sharing its resources and expertise with other countries, Nigeria aims to strengthen regional ties and promote development in these areas.

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A representative of a Commonwealth country in another member state is known as a High Commissioner. The Commonwealth of Nations is an intergovernmental organization made up of 54 member countries, mostly former territories of the British Empire. High Commissioners are the highest-ranking diplomats representing Commonwealth countries in other member states. High Commissioners are responsible for promoting their country's interests and building relationships with the host country, as well as representing their country in meetings and negotiations with the host country's government. They also serve as a liaison between their country and the host country, promoting cooperation and understanding between the two. In short, a High Commissioner is a type of ambassador who represents a Commonwealth country in another member state of the Commonwealth of Nations.

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A group of people who live together under a common law within a definite territory is a State. A state is a political entity with sovereignty over a defined geographical area, which includes a population and a government that exercises control over the territory and the people who live there. A state is characterized by the presence of a government that makes and enforces laws and regulations, maintains order, and provides essential services such as education, healthcare, and infrastructure. The government is responsible for protecting the interests of the state and its citizens, and it is accountable to the people it serves. In contrast, a community refers to a group of people who live in the same locality, share a common culture or identity, and have social interactions and relationships. A nation refers to a group of people who share a common culture, language, and history, while a nation-state refers to a sovereign state whose citizens are predominantly of a single nationality or ethnicity. Therefore, a state is a political entity that exercises sovereignty over a defined territory, whereas a community, nation, and nation-state refer to different groups of people with varying degrees of social, cultural, and political cohesion.

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Nigeria adopted the federal system of government because of the fear of domination of minorities. The country is made up of many ethnic groups, each with its own language, culture, and traditions. A federal system of government allows power to be shared between the central government and the various states or regions, giving each group a measure of autonomy and a voice in decision-making. This helps to prevent any one group from dominating the others and ensures that the interests of all groups are represented in the governance of the country. Additionally, a federal system can promote stability and unity by allowing for the accommodation of regional differences and local needs within a larger, unified framework.

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A major source of revenue for local governments in Nigeria after 1976 is Internally Generated Revenue (IGR). IGR refers to the money generated within a local government area from various sources such as taxes, fees and fines, among others. This means that local governments collect money from their residents and businesses to fund their projects and activities, rather than relying solely on funding from the federal government. By having their own source of revenue, local governments can have more control over their finances and can make decisions about how to allocate their resources to best meet the needs of their communities.

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The African Union (AU) and the Organization of African Unity (OAU) are two different organizations that were formed with the aim of promoting unity and cooperation among African countries. The main difference between the AU and the OAU is that the AU has effective tools for decision enforcement, while the OAU did not. This means that the AU has the means to enforce decisions that it makes, whereas the OAU did not have this capability. The AU also has a permanent headquarters, which is located in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, whereas the OAU did not have a permanent headquarters. Additionally, the AU allows for a diversity of viewpoints and encourages open discussion and debate, whereas the OAU sought to minimize divergent viewpoints. Finally, the AU has an assembly of Heads of State, which is a gathering of the leaders of African countries, whereas the OAU did not have this type of assembly. Overall, the AU is a more robust and effective organization than the OAU, with a stronger focus on decision enforcement and a more diverse and inclusive approach to promoting African unity.