JAMB UTME - Geography - 2008

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One distinguishing characteristic of ferruginous soils is the occurrence of iron concretions in the B horizon. Ferruginous soils are soils that are rich in iron oxides and have a distinctive reddish-brown color. They are found in areas with a tropical or subtropical climate and are usually formed from the weathering of iron-rich rocks. The B horizon is the layer of soil below the A horizon, and it is characterized by the accumulation of minerals and organic matter that have been transported down from the surface. In ferruginous soils, iron oxides accumulate in the B horizon, forming iron concretions or nodules. These concretions are hard, dense, and often spherical or elongated in shape. They can range in size from a few millimeters to several centimeters in diameter. The occurrence of these iron concretions is a distinguishing characteristic of ferruginous soils and is used to identify them in the field.

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One direct adverse environmental effect of deforestation is escalated soil erosion. Deforestation refers to the process of clearing forests or trees from a land area, typically for the purpose of converting it to non-forest use, such as agricultural or urban development. When forests are cut down, the vegetation and trees that previously held the soil in place are removed, leaving the soil exposed to the elements. This makes the soil more susceptible to erosion, especially during periods of heavy rainfall or strong winds. Soil erosion can have a number of negative impacts on the environment. It can lead to the loss of topsoil, which is rich in nutrients and supports plant growth. It can also cause increased sedimentation in waterways, which can harm aquatic ecosystems by reducing water quality and disrupting the food chain. Additionally, soil erosion can contribute to landslides and other natural disasters, further damaging the environment and potentially endangering human populations. Overall, deforestation can have significant negative impacts on the environment, including escalated soil erosion, which can in turn have a range of additional adverse effects.

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Access to water and kinship ties can lead to nucleated settlements. Nucleated settlements are communities where houses are clustered together in a small area. These settlements are often located near a source of water such as a river or a well. When a community has access to water, they can irrigate their fields and provide themselves with enough water for drinking and cooking. Moreover, kinship ties can also lead to the formation of nucleated settlements. People who are related by blood or marriage often choose to live close to each other to support and protect each other. This results in the clustering of houses in a small area. Therefore, when a community has access to water and strong kinship ties, they are more likely to form nucleated settlements. Other settlement types, such as ribbon, loose-knit, or dispersed settlements, may form under different circumstances.

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Sedimentary rocks are distinguished from other rocks by their strata. Sedimentary rocks are formed from the accumulation and cementation of sediment, such as sand, mud, and pebbles, over time. These sediments are deposited in layers, or strata, which build up and eventually become rock. The layers in sedimentary rocks are usually visible to the naked eye and can often be distinguished by differences in color, texture, and composition. This layering is a distinctive feature of sedimentary rocks and sets them apart from other types of rocks, such as igneous or metamorphic rocks, which do not typically exhibit such a layered structure. Joints, or cracks, can occur in all types of rocks, including sedimentary rocks, but they are not a defining characteristic of sedimentary rocks. Similarly, while sedimentary rocks can be compact and hard, this is not unique to this type of rock. Finally, sedimentary rocks are not typically crystalline in nature, unlike igneous and metamorphic rocks, which are formed through processes involving intense heat and pressure.

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Economic activities in tropical Africa largely depend on primary production. Primary production involves extracting or harvesting natural resources, such as agriculture, mining, forestry, and fishing. These activities are often the backbone of the economy in tropical Africa, as they provide raw materials for both local consumption and export. Agriculture, for example, is a significant economic activity in tropical Africa, with many people relying on small-scale farming for their livelihoods. Mining is another important industry, with countries such as South Africa and Zambia being major producers of minerals such as gold, diamonds, and copper. Secondary production involves processing raw materials into finished products, while tertiary and quaternary production involve services and knowledge-based industries, respectively. While these sectors are also present in tropical Africa, they are not as prominent as primary production. Overall, primary production remains a key economic activity in tropical Africa, with many people relying on natural resources for their livelihoods and the region's economy.

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To convert a temperature from Fahrenheit to Celsius, we use the following formula: C = (F - 32) x 5/9 Where C is the temperature in Celsius and F is the temperature in Fahrenheit. Using this formula, we can convert the given temperature of 68°F to Celsius: C = (68 - 32) x 5/9 C = 36 x 5/9 C = 20°C Therefore, the equivalent temperature of 68°F is 20°C in Celsius.

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Rocks often develop cracks when they are exposed to compression and tension. Compression occurs when rocks are pushed together, while tension occurs when rocks are pulled apart. Both of these forces can cause rocks to develop cracks, which can vary in size and orientation depending on the type of force applied and the properties of the rock. Additionally, joints and faults can also contribute to the development of cracks in rocks. Joints are natural fractures that occur in rocks, often as a result of tectonic movements or other stresses. Faults are more significant fractures in the Earth's crust that result from the movement of tectonic plates. Both joints and faults can create pathways for water and other materials to penetrate rocks, further contributing to their weathering and erosion. Overall, it is the combination of compression and tension, as well as other geological processes such as jointing and faulting, that can cause rocks to develop cracks over time.

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Commercial agriculture in the tropics concentrates on the production of rice. This is because rice is one of the few staple crops that can be grown in the hot and humid conditions found in tropical regions. Rice requires a lot of water and can thrive in flooded fields, making it an ideal crop for areas with heavy rainfall or access to irrigation. In addition, rice is a high-yielding crop that can support large populations, making it an important food source in many tropical countries. Other crops, such as wheat and millet, require drier conditions and cooler temperatures to grow, and are therefore not well-suited to tropical agriculture. Tea is also an important crop in some tropical countries, but it is typically grown in cooler upland areas rather than the lowland areas where rice is cultivated. In summary, commercial agriculture in the tropics concentrates on the production of rice because it is a high-yielding crop that can be grown in hot and humid conditions, and is an important food source for many people in tropical regions.

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The process that creates deep gorges on the land surface is gully erosion. Gully erosion occurs when water flows rapidly over an area of land, creating channels or gullies that can deepen over time. This often happens in areas where the soil is exposed and not protected by vegetation or where the slope of the land is steep, allowing water to gain momentum as it flows downhill. Gully erosion can have significant impacts on the environment, including the loss of fertile soil and damage to infrastructure such as roads and buildings. In summary, gully erosion is a process of land degradation that creates deep channels or gullies on the land surface due to the rapid flow of water over exposed soil in areas with steep slopes.

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The Ganges river basin is the most densely populated among the four river basins listed. The Ganges river basin is home to more than 400 million people who rely on the river for their livelihoods and survival. The basin includes parts of India, Nepal, and Bangladesh, which are some of the most populous countries in the world. The Ganges river is also considered a holy river by many Hindus, which has led to the development of many cities and towns along its banks, further contributing to the high population density in the area. In summary, the Ganges river basin is the most densely populated due to a combination of factors such as the high population of the countries it flows through, its importance to people's livelihoods, and religious significance.

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The arid regions of Africa have great potential for solar energy. Solar energy is produced by capturing sunlight and converting it into electricity or heat. These regions receive abundant sunlight throughout the year, making them ideal for solar energy production. Unlike other energy sources such as nuclear or hydro, solar energy is clean, renewable, and does not produce greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to climate change. Additionally, solar energy can be generated locally, reducing the need for long-distance transmission lines and improving energy security in these regions. Therefore, solar energy is a promising option for powering communities in the arid regions of Africa.

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The Nigerian town that is most likely to experience frequent cases of coastal erosion is Burutu. This is because Burutu is located in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria, which is a low-lying coastal area that is prone to flooding and erosion due to the constant rise and fall of the tides and the high volume of rainfall in the region. The erosion of the coastline can be caused by factors such as wave action, storm surge, and sea level rise, which can result in the loss of land, destruction of buildings and infrastructure, and the displacement of people living in the affected areas. Therefore, it is important for the government and stakeholders in the region to take proactive measures to mitigate the effects of coastal erosion and protect the lives and properties of the people in the affected communities.

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Zuma rock, Zaria, and Kano inselbergs are located in the North-central highlands of Nigeria. The North-central highlands is a region characterized by a series of high plateaus and hills with a generally rugged landscape. It is located in the central part of Nigeria and includes the Jos Plateau, which is one of the major geological features in Nigeria. The North-central highlands region is also known for its numerous inselbergs, which are isolated rock hills or small mountains that rise abruptly from the surrounding flat plains. Zuma rock, Zaria, and Kano inselbergs are some of the most prominent inselbergs in Nigeria and are popular tourist attractions. Therefore, the correct answer to the question is North-central highlands.

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Khartoum in Sudan is located at the confluence of two rivers, namely the Blue Nile and the White Nile. The Blue Nile and White Nile meet in Khartoum, where they merge to form the River Nile, which is the longest river in the world. Khartoum's strategic location at the confluence of these two rivers has made it an important center of trade and commerce throughout history. The Blue Nile originates in Ethiopia and the White Nile in Uganda, and they flow northwards through Sudan before meeting in Khartoum. The city's location at the confluence of these two major rivers has also made it an important transportation hub, connecting Sudan to other parts of Africa and the Middle East. In summary, Khartoum in Sudan is located at the confluence of two rivers, the Blue Nile and the White Nile, which merge to form the River Nile, and this strategic location has made it an important center of trade, commerce, and transportation.

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The surface zone of the earth that is occupied by living organisms is referred to as the biosphere. The biosphere includes all living organisms on earth, including animals, plants, and microorganisms, as well as their interactions with each other and with the non-living components of the environment such as water, air, and soil. The biosphere is characterized by its diversity of life forms and the various ecological processes that sustain life on earth. This zone extends from the upper part of the atmosphere down to the deepest parts of the oceans and includes both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. It is the only place in the universe that is known to support life. In summary, the biosphere is the surface zone of the earth that is occupied by living organisms and includes all the ecosystems on the planet, both terrestrial and aquatic.

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Equatorial climate is a type of climate that is typically found near the Earth's equator, between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. This region is characterized by high temperatures, high humidity, and heavy rainfall throughout the year. Out of the options provided, the Zaire Basin is the region that is most likely to have an equatorial climate. The Zaire Basin is located in Central Africa, near the equator, and receives high amounts of rainfall throughout the year. The Namib desert, Horn of Africa, and Veld of South Africa, on the other hand, are not typically associated with equatorial climates. The Namib desert is a hot desert region located in southern Africa, while the Horn of Africa and Veld of South Africa are regions that experience a mix of tropical and sub-tropical climates.

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The speed of wind is usually measured using an anemometer. An anemometer is a device that is used to measure the speed of wind. It works by rotating in response to the wind, and the speed of rotation is proportional to the speed of the wind. The most common type of anemometer used today is the cup anemometer, which has three or four cups mounted on horizontal arms that spin when exposed to the wind. The number of rotations per minute is measured, and this is used to calculate the wind speed. Other types of anemometers include the vane anemometer, which uses a propeller and wind vane to measure both wind speed and direction, and the hot-wire anemometer, which uses a heated wire to measure the rate of cooling caused by the wind. However, the most commonly used anemometer is the cup anemometer. Therefore, to measure the speed of wind, an anemometer is used.

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The most sparsely populated areas of the world include Canada and Eurasia. These regions are characterized by their extreme climatic conditions, rugged terrain, and lack of infrastructure. Canada, for example, has a large area of boreal forest and tundra in its northern regions, which is sparsely populated due to its harsh winters and lack of arable land. Similarly, much of the Eurasian landmass is characterized by low temperatures, aridity, and mountainous terrain, making it difficult for human settlement. These regions are often inhabited by nomadic or semi-nomadic groups who have adapted to the harsh environment by relying on hunting, fishing, and herding. Despite the challenges, these regions are rich in natural resources, including minerals, timber, and fossil fuels, and have attracted interest from industries seeking to exploit these resources. In summary, the most sparsely populated areas of the world include Canada and Eurasia, which are characterized by harsh environments and a lack of infrastructure, but are rich in natural resources.

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The climate that is noted for its summer dryness is the Mediterranean climate. This type of climate is characterized by hot and dry summers, with very little rainfall during this season, while winters tend to be mild and wet. It is typically found in regions around the Mediterranean Sea, but also in other parts of the world such as California, Chile, and parts of South Africa and Australia. The dry summers in this climate are often due to high pressure systems that form over the region, preventing moist air from entering and leading to little or no precipitation.

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The movement of a group of people from a village to an irrigation project area is called "rural-rural migration." This is because they are moving from one rural area (the village) to another rural area (the irrigation project area). The term "urban" refers to cities or urban areas, which do not apply in this case.

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The effect of ocean currents along the coasts they wash is experienced when prevailing winds are onshore. Ocean currents can have a significant impact on the coastal environment, affecting factors such as water temperature, salinity, and nutrient content. When prevailing winds are onshore, they drive surface waters towards the shore, leading to an accumulation of water along the coast. This can cause an increase in water level, known as a coastal upwelling, which can have several effects. For example, the upwelling can bring cold, nutrient-rich water to the surface, which can stimulate the growth of marine organisms such as phytoplankton. This can in turn attract fish and other marine life, making the area an important fishing ground. On the other hand, coastal upwelling can also lead to the cooling of water temperatures, which can impact marine ecosystems and weather patterns in the region. In summary, the effect of ocean currents along the coasts they wash is experienced when prevailing winds are onshore, and this can have significant impacts on the coastal environment and local communities.

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The Nigerian river with the longest distance of internal waterways is River Benue. River Benue is the longest tributary of the River Niger, and it flows for approximately 1,400 kilometers through Nigeria before merging with the Niger in Lokoja. The river serves as an important transportation route, with many towns and villages located along its banks. It also supports a range of economic activities such as fishing, agriculture, and hydroelectric power generation. The River Benue is also home to a diverse range of aquatic plants and animals, including several species of fish that are important to local communities. In summary, the River Benue is the Nigerian river with the longest distance of internal waterways due to its length and importance as a transportation route and a source of livelihoods for many communities along its banks.

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Erin-Ijesa is a settlement in Nigeria that drives its domestic water from a waterfall. Erin-Ijesa is a town located in Osun State in southwestern Nigeria, and it is home to the Olumirin Waterfalls, also known as Erin-Ijesa Waterfalls. The waterfall is a major tourist attraction in the area, and it is also a source of water for the town. The waterfall has seven layers and creates several natural pools of water that are used for domestic purposes such as washing, bathing, and cooking by the people of Erin-Ijesa. The water is considered to be clean and fresh, and the people of the town take great pride in the fact that they are able to derive their water supply from such a natural wonder. In summary, Erin-Ijesa is a settlement in Nigeria that drives its domestic water supply from the Olumirin Waterfalls, a major tourist attraction and natural wonder in the area.

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Shifting cultivation in agriculture involves cultivating alternative plots to allow natural regeneration. Shifting cultivation, also known as slash-and-burn agriculture, is a traditional farming practice in which farmers clear a plot of land and burn the vegetation to release nutrients into the soil. They then cultivate crops on that plot for a few years until the soil loses its fertility, and then move on to another plot of land, allowing the first plot to naturally regenerate over several years. This method of farming is often used in areas where the soil is poor and does not support intensive or continuous cultivation. Shifting cultivation is typically used for subsistence farming, where farmers grow crops mainly to feed themselves and their families. It is also used for cultivating cash crops for local markets, rather than for export. Shifting cultivation is often associated with indigenous and traditional communities, who rely on this method for their livelihoods and cultural practices.

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Wheat is cultivated through irrigation in Nigeria in Kaduna state. Kaduna state is located in the northern part of Nigeria and has a suitable climate for the cultivation of wheat. However, since wheat is not a native crop to Nigeria and requires a lot of water, it can only be grown successfully through irrigation. The Kaduna River, which runs through the state, provides water for irrigation farming, making it possible for wheat to be cultivated successfully in the area. The state government has also provided support for wheat farmers by providing them with irrigation facilities and other farming inputs such as fertilizers and improved seed varieties. In summary, wheat is cultivated through irrigation in Nigeria in Kaduna state due to the availability of water from the Kaduna River and government support for irrigation farming in the area.

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The main mineral composition of lateritic soils are iron and aluminium. Lateritic soils are a type of soil that is formed in hot and wet tropical regions. They are usually rich in iron and aluminium oxides, which are formed through a process of intense weathering of the underlying rocks over time. Iron and aluminium are the primary constituents of lateritic soils, which give them their characteristic reddish-brown color. These soils are typically poor in nutrients and have a low pH, which can make it challenging for plants to grow in them. Therefore, the correct answer to the question is iron and aluminium.