WAEC SSCE - Government - 1995 (Essay)

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Government as an academic field of study

As an academic field of study, Government is a branch of the social sciences that systematically studies the state, its institutions, and the way power and authority are acquired, organised, exercised and controlled in society.

In this sense, Government examines:

• The state and its origin, nature and purpose;
• The institutions of government, that is the legislature, the executive and the judiciary, and how they function;
• The processes by which political power is gained and used, such as elections, political parties, pressure groups and public opinion;
• The relationship between the government and the citizens, including rights, duties and the rule of law;
• The relationship between one state and others (international relations).

Studied this way, Government is closely related to Political Science; it is taught in schools and colleges, has its own concepts, theories and methods of enquiry, and equips the student to understand and participate intelligently in the political life of his society. It is therefore both a body of organised knowledge and a discipline that can be researched, taught and examined.

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Aims and objectives of the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC)

The NCNC was formed in 1944 under the leadership of Herbert Macaulay (President) and Nnamdi Azikiwe (Secretary). Its aims and objectives included:

1. To achieve self-government for Nigeria: Its central aim was to secure internal self-rule and eventual independence from British colonial rule.
2. To promote national unity: It sought to weld the various peoples and organisations of Nigeria into one united nation and to bury ethnic and sectional differences.
3. To secure political freedom and improve the political status of Nigerians: It worked for greater African participation in the government of the country.
4. To promote the economic, social and educational development of Nigerians: It aimed to raise the standard of living and expand educational opportunities for the people.
5. To defend and protect the rights of Nigerians: It fought against injustice, obnoxious colonial policies and the exploitation of the people.
6. To provide an avenue for the political education and enlightenment of the masses: It mobilised and organised various ethnic unions, trade unions and youth movements into a common nationalist front.

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(a) Meaning of representative government

Representative government is a system of government in which the people do not rule directly, but periodically elect a limited number of persons (representatives) to make laws, take decisions and govern on their behalf and in their interest. The representatives are accountable to the electorate and can be voted out at the next election if they fail to perform.

(b) Conditions essential for the existence of a representative government

1. Regular, free and fair elections: There must be periodic elections through which the people freely choose and change their representatives.
2. Universal adult suffrage: All qualified adult citizens must have the right to vote and to be voted for.
3. Existence of political parties: There must be two or more political parties offering the electorate a genuine choice.
4. Fundamental human rights: Freedom of speech, association, the press and assembly must be guaranteed so that opinions can be freely expressed.
5. Rule of law and an independent judiciary: Government and citizens must be subject to the law, with impartial courts to settle disputes.
6. An enlightened and politically conscious electorate: The citizens must be sufficiently educated to make informed choices and hold representatives accountable.
7. An independent electoral body: A neutral commission must organise credible elections.

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Factors that necessitated the adoption of federalism in Nigeria

1. Large size of the country: Nigeria's vast territory made it difficult to administer from a single centre, so power had to be shared among regional units.
2. Ethnic and cultural diversity: The existence of over 250 ethnic groups with different languages, customs and ways of life made a unitary system unworkable; federalism allowed each group a measure of self-rule.
3. Fear of domination by the majority groups: The minority ethnic groups feared being dominated by the three major groups (Hausa/Fulani, Yoruba and Igbo), so regional autonomy was adopted to protect them.
4. Wide differences in the level of development: The regions were at different stages of educational and economic development, and federalism allowed each to develop at its own pace.
5. Colonial administrative structure: The British had already divided the country into Northern and Southern Protectorates and later into regions, laying the foundation for a federal arrangement.
6. Desire for unity in diversity: Federalism made it possible to hold the diverse peoples together in one country while still preserving their distinct identities.
7. Religious differences: The division between the largely Muslim North and the largely Christian South made a decentralised federal system more acceptable to all.

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Functions of a public corporation

1. Provision of essential services: They supply basic utilities such as electricity, water, railways and telecommunications that are vital to national life.
2. Prevention of private monopoly: By running strategic industries, the state prevents private individuals from monopolising and exploiting the public.
3. Employment generation: They create large numbers of jobs and thereby reduce unemployment.
4. Provision of goods and services at affordable prices: Since profit is not the main aim, services are provided cheaply for the benefit of all citizens.
5. Source of revenue and rapid development: They generate revenue for government and undertake large capital projects that private investors cannot afford.

Problems of a public corporation

1. Inadequate funding: Heavy dependence on government subventions, which are often insufficient and delayed, cripples their operations.
2. Bureaucratic red tape and delay: Excessive official procedures make decision-making slow and inefficient.
3. Political interference: Government appoints and directs the management, and undue political control leads to poor decisions and instability.
4. Corruption and mismanagement: Embezzlement, fraud and the appointment of unqualified persons lead to waste and losses.
5. Poor management and inefficiency: Absence of the profit motive breeds laxity, waste and low productivity.

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(a) Meaning of political authority

Political authority is the legitimate or rightful power to make binding decisions, issue commands and enforce obedience within a state. It is power that is recognised and accepted as lawful by the people, so that citizens obey not merely out of fear but because they believe those who exercise it have the right to do so.

(b) Types of political authority (after Max Weber)

1. Traditional authority: Authority based on long-established customs, traditions and inherited status. Obedience is given because "it has always been so"; it is exercised by kings, chiefs and emirs whose right to rule is inherited.
2. Charismatic authority: Authority derived from the exceptional personal qualities, heroism or magnetism of an individual leader. Followers obey because of their devotion to and belief in the extraordinary personality of the leader, for example a great nationalist or religious leader.
3. Legal-rational authority: Authority based on a system of established laws, rules and procedures. Obedience is given to the office and the law rather than to the person; those in power hold authority only by virtue of the legal position they occupy, for example an elected president or a civil servant.

(Others sometimes listed: coercive, delegated and de facto/de jure authority.)

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Five major features of Nigeria's foreign policy since independence

1. Africa as the centrepiece: The liberation, unity and development of Africa have been the primary focus of Nigeria's foreign policy; Nigeria consistently supports African causes and gives priority to African affairs.
2. Non-alignment: Nigeria refused to align permanently with either the Western or the Eastern bloc during the Cold War, choosing instead to judge issues on their merits.
3. Support for the total liberation of Africa from colonialism and apartheid: Nigeria gave strong political, moral and material support to liberation movements and to the anti-apartheid struggle in Southern Africa.
4. Respect for the sovereign equality of all states and non-interference: Nigeria upholds the sovereign equality of states and non-interference in the internal affairs of other countries.
5. Promotion of regional and international cooperation: Nigeria is committed to good neighbourliness and to membership of and active participation in organisations such as ECOWAS, the AU (formerly OAU), the UN and the Commonwealth.

(Others: peaceful settlement of disputes, and promotion of the economic well-being of Nigerians.)

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Functions of pressure groups

1. Protection and promotion of members' interests: They defend and advance the economic, professional or social interests of their members, for example trade unions fighting for better wages and conditions.
2. Influencing government policy: They lobby the legislature, executive and political parties to make, amend or reject laws and policies in their favour.
3. Political education and enlightenment: They inform and educate members and the general public on political and economic issues, raising political awareness.
4. Serving as a link between government and the people: They channel the demands, grievances and views of their members to government and convey government intentions back to members.
5. Checking the excesses of government (watchdog role): They criticise and expose bad policies and abuses, acting as a check on government and defending democracy.
6. Supplementing the work of political parties: They mobilise support, provide expert information to government, and sometimes support parties that favour their interests.
7. Provision of welfare services: Many render welfare and social benefits to their members, such as loans, insurance and training.

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Major changes introduced by the Clifford Constitution of 1922

(The Clifford Constitution was introduced in 1922 by Governor Sir Hugh Clifford.) Its major changes were:

1. Introduction of the elective principle: For the first time in Nigeria (and British West Africa), it allowed Africans to elect some of their representatives into the Legislative Council through the ballot box.
2. Establishment of an enlarged Legislative Council: It created a Legislative Council of 46 members (27 official and 19 unofficial) whose law-making authority covered the Colony of Lagos and the Southern Provinces.
3. Limited African representation: Four elected seats were provided, three for Lagos and one for Calabar, though on a restrictive franchise based on a high property/income qualification.
4. Encouragement of the growth of political parties: The introduction of elections stimulated political activity and led to the formation of political parties, notably Herbert Macaulay's Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) in 1923.
5. Growth of the nationalist press and politics: It widened political consciousness and encouraged the emergence of newspapers and political associations.

Note: the North was still administered separately by proclamation and was not included in the elective arrangement.

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Functions of the Secretary-General of the United Nations Organisation

1. Chief administrative officer: He is the head of the UN Secretariat and is responsible for the day-to-day administration of the organisation and its staff.
2. Implementation of decisions: He carries out the decisions and resolutions passed by the General Assembly, the Security Council and other organs of the UN.
3. Preparation of reports and the budget: He prepares the annual report on the work of the organisation and draws up its budget for approval.
4. Mediation and peace-keeping: He uses his good offices to mediate in international disputes and helps to prevent, manage and resolve conflicts, including organising peace-keeping missions.
5. Bringing threats to peace before the Security Council: Under Article 99 of the UN Charter, he may draw the attention of the Security Council to any matter that in his opinion threatens international peace and security.
6. Convening and servicing meetings: He summons and provides administrative services for meetings of the various UN organs and their agencies.
7. Coordination of UN agencies: He coordinates the activities of the specialised agencies and represents the organisation at international functions.