WAEC SSCE - Government - 2014 (Essay)

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Federalism is a system in which governmental powers are constitutionally divided between a central government and the component units, each supreme within its own sphere. Five factors that give rise to the adoption of federalism are:

1. Large size of the country: Where a country is very large in area, a federal system is adopted so that government can be brought nearer to the people and administration made more manageable through the units.
2. Ethnic, cultural and linguistic diversity: Where a country is made up of many peoples with different languages, customs and religions, federalism enables the diverse groups to live together in one country while each retains a degree of self-government and preserves its identity.
3. Fear of domination by a majority group: Where smaller groups or units fear being dominated by a larger one, federalism reassures them by dividing power among the units so that no single group can control all others.
4. Differences in the level of development: Where the various parts differ widely in education, economic advancement and social outlook, federalism allows each unit to develop at its own pace.
5. Desire for unity in diversity: The need to bind different peoples together into one nation while allowing them to manage their local affairs encourages the adoption of federalism, achieving unity without imposing uniformity.
6. Historical and geographical factors: Previously separate territories or units, or areas separated by geography, may come together for common purposes such as defence and economic strength while retaining their identities, leading to a federal union.
7. Common external interests: The need for a strong common front in matters such as defence, security and economic development can draw separate units into a federation.

(Any five of the above are acceptable.)

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In the Yoruba pre-colonial political system, the king (the Oba, such as the Alaafin of Oyo) was selected and installed by a body of hereditary chiefs known as the King Makers (for example the Oyo Mesi, headed by the Bashorun). Five of their functions and powers were:

1. Selection of a new Oba: The chief function of the King Makers was to choose a new king from among the eligible princes of the ruling houses whenever the throne became vacant. No prince could become Oba without their nomination and approval.
2. Installation of the Oba: They performed the traditional rites and ceremonies of coronation and formally installed the chosen candidate as king, conferring legitimacy on his reign.
3. Advising and checking the Oba: They served as a council of state that advised the Oba on the affairs of the kingdom and acted as a check on his powers, so that he could not rule as an absolute despot.
4. Power to reject or depose the Oba: The King Makers could call an erring or tyrannical Oba to order and, in extreme cases, reject him. In Oyo the Oyo Mesi could require an unpopular Alaafin to commit suicide by presenting him with an empty calabash (or parrot's eggs), thereby removing him from office.
5. Regency during an interregnum: They administered the kingdom and maintained order during the period between the death of one Oba and the installation of the next, ensuring continuity of government.
6. Legislative and judicial roles: As leading chiefs they took part in making important decisions, settling major disputes and performing certain religious and ceremonial duties on behalf of the state.

(Any five of the above are acceptable.)

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(a) Definition of capitalism

Capitalism is an economic and political system in which the means of production and distribution (land, capital, factories, banks and businesses) are owned and controlled by private individuals and companies rather than by the state, and in which production is carried on for private profit. It is based on private ownership of property, the profit motive, free enterprise, competition and the operation of market forces of demand and supply (the price mechanism), with only limited interference by government.

(b) Two advantages and two disadvantages of capitalism

Advantages:

1. Efficiency and higher productivity: The profit motive and competition encourage hard work, efficiency and the best use of resources, leading to increased production of goods and services.
2. Individual freedom and initiative: It allows freedom of enterprise and choice, so that people are free to own property, start businesses, choose their occupation and spend their income as they wish; this encourages initiative, innovation and invention.

Disadvantages:

1. Unequal distribution of wealth: Capitalism concentrates wealth in the hands of a few, widening the gap between the rich and the poor and creating social injustice.
2. Exploitation and neglect of social welfare: The pursuit of private profit can lead to the exploitation of workers and consumers, and essential but unprofitable services may be neglected, while economic instability such as unemployment and periodic depressions may occur.

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(a) Definition of legitimacy

Legitimacy is the quality of being lawful, rightful and generally accepted. In government, it refers to the general belief and acceptance by the people that those who exercise political power have the right to do so, and that their authority and commands ought to be obeyed. A government is said to be legitimate when it has come to power through accepted and constitutional means and enjoys the support and consent of the governed. Legitimacy therefore turns naked power into rightful authority.

(b) Four factors that determine legitimacy

1. Mode of acquiring power (constitutionality): A government that comes to power through due constitutional process, such as a free and fair election, is regarded as legitimate, whereas one that seizes power unlawfully (for example through a coup) lacks legitimacy.
2. Consent and support of the people: Legitimacy depends on the willing acceptance and support of the majority of the citizens; a government backed by popular consent is legitimate.
3. Adherence to the rule of law and the constitution: A government that governs according to the constitution and the law, respects fundamental rights and rules justly, earns and retains legitimacy.
4. Effective and good performance: A government that maintains law and order, provides security and social amenities and promotes the welfare of the people gains legitimacy through its good performance.
5. Tradition and long usage: Authority sanctioned by long-established custom and tradition (as with traditional rulers) is accepted as legitimate.
6. Charisma and personal qualities of the leader: The exceptional personal appeal, competence and moral standing of a leader can win the acceptance and loyalty of the people.
7. Recognition by other states and international bodies: Acceptance and recognition of a government by other nations and international organisations reinforces its legitimacy.

(Any four of the above are acceptable.)

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The Commonwealth of Nations is a voluntary association of independent states, most of which were formerly under British rule, joined together for co-operation and mutual benefit. It faces a number of challenges. Five of them are:

1. Lack of a common ideology and shared interests: The member states differ widely in political systems, ideologies, cultures and levels of development, so it is difficult for them to agree on common policies and to act with one voice.
2. Absence of coercive or enforcement power: The Commonwealth has no army and no binding legal authority over its members. Its decisions and resolutions are merely advisory, so it cannot compel members to comply, which weakens its effectiveness.
3. Wide disparity in wealth and development: There is a great gap between the few rich, developed members (such as Britain, Canada and Australia) and the many poor, developing members, and this inequality breeds tension and complaints of neglect.
4. Financial constraints: The organisation depends on contributions from members, many of whom are poor or default in their payments, so it often lacks sufficient funds to carry out its programmes.
5. Conflicts and disagreements among members: Political disputes, border conflicts and ideological differences among member states (and disagreements over issues such as apartheid, human rights and the conduct of particular members) have strained the association and led some to threaten or carry out withdrawal.
6. Domination by Britain and colonial memories: Some members feel that the association is still dominated by Britain and serves British interests, and lingering resentment over the colonial past reduces enthusiasm and unity.
7. Waning commitment and relevance: Members increasingly give priority to regional blocs (such as the EU, AU and ECOWAS), so commitment to the Commonwealth and its relevance have declined.

(Any five of the above are acceptable.)

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Democracy is government by the people, based on popular consent and the rule of law, while a military regime is government by the armed forces, usually installed through a coup and ruling by decree. Five reasons why people prefer democratic government to military regimes are:

1. Popular participation and consent: In a democracy the people choose their leaders through periodic free elections and take part in decision-making, whereas a military regime imposes itself without the consent of the governed.
2. Protection of fundamental human rights and freedoms: Democracy guarantees and protects the rights and freedoms of citizens (of speech, association, movement and so on), while military regimes often suspend these rights and rule by force.
3. Rule of law and constitutionalism: A democratic government operates under the constitution and the rule of law, so that everyone, including the rulers, is subject to the law; military regimes rule by arbitrary decrees and suspend the constitution.
4. Accountability and change of government through peaceful means: Under democracy the government is accountable to the people and can be voted out peacefully at elections, whereas a military regime is not accountable and can usually only be removed by force.
5. Freedom of the press and freedom of expression: Democracy allows a free press and open criticism of government, which check abuse of power, while military regimes usually gag the press and suppress opposition.
6. Separation of powers and independence of the judiciary: Democracy provides checks and balances and an independent judiciary that curb dictatorship, unlike the concentration of power in a military regime.

(Any five of the above are acceptable.)

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(a) Three features of the Macpherson Constitution (1951)

1. Federal (regional) structure with wider powers for the regions: It retained and strengthened the three regions (Northern, Western and Eastern), each with its own House of Assembly (and a House of Chiefs in the North and West) empowered to legislate on regional matters.
2. A central legislature with an elected Nigerian majority: It created a Central House of Representatives with a much larger membership, most of whom were Nigerians chosen through the regional houses, giving Nigerians a stronger voice at the centre.
3. Introduction of the ministerial system: Nigerians were appointed as ministers at both the central and regional levels, giving indigenous leaders a share in the executive administration for the first time.
4. It was a product of wide consultation: Unlike the Richards Constitution, it was drawn up after extensive consultation with Nigerians, including the Ibadan General Conference of 1950.

(Any three of the above are acceptable.)

(b) Two reasons for the breakdown of the Lyttleton Constitution (1954)

1. Attainment of independence and self-government: The constitution was overtaken by events. As the regions attained internal self-government and the country moved to full independence in 1960, a new independence constitution was required to replace it.
2. Constitutional crises and demands for further reform: Persistent disagreements among the regions and political parties, and demands for the creation of more regions, revenue allocation and greater autonomy, led to a series of constitutional conferences (1957 and 1958) which produced revisions that superseded the Lyttleton arrangement.
3. Regional agitation for self-government at different times: The Eastern and Western Regions became self-governing in 1957 and the North in 1959, so the original arrangement had to be altered to accommodate these changes.

(Any two of the above are acceptable.)

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An election is free and fair when it is conducted openly, honestly and impartially so that the true wishes of the electorate are reflected in the result. Elections can be made free and fair in the following five ways:

1. An independent and impartial electoral body: There should be a neutral electoral commission, free from government control, to organise and supervise the elections honestly, register voters, count votes and announce results without bias.
2. An up-to-date and accurate voters' register: A credible register of genuine, qualified voters should be prepared and displayed for correction, so as to prevent multiple registration, impersonation and the padding of names.
3. Adequate and impartial security: The police and other security agencies should provide protection at polling stations and remain neutral, so that voters can vote freely without intimidation, thuggery or violence.
4. Secret ballot: Voting should be by secret ballot so that electors can vote according to their conscience without fear of being victimised, and to prevent bribery and undue influence.
5. Equal opportunity for all parties and candidates: All political parties and candidates should have equal access to the mass media, freedom to campaign, and a level playing field, without the party in power abusing state resources or the incumbency advantage.
6. Effective machinery for settling disputes: There should be impartial election tribunals and courts to hear and determine complaints and petitions quickly, so that electoral malpractices can be punished and injustices corrected.
7. Voter education and the presence of observers: Educating the electorate on the voting process and allowing local and international observers help to ensure transparency and reduce malpractice.

(Any five of the above are acceptable.)

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The study of government is important for many reasons. Five of them are:

1. It produces good and informed citizens: The study of government teaches citizens their rights and duties and how the state is run, enabling them to participate intelligently in the affairs of their country.
2. It creates political awareness and consciousness: It makes people aware of political issues, government policies and current affairs, so that they can form sound judgements and hold their leaders accountable.
3. It promotes patriotism and national unity: By teaching the history, institutions and values of the nation, the study of government fosters loyalty, love of country and a sense of belonging among citizens of diverse backgrounds.
4. It prepares people for leadership and public service: It equips people with knowledge of political institutions, administration and public affairs, preparing them for careers and roles in politics, the civil service, diplomacy, law and other fields.
5. It helps citizens understand and protect their rights: Knowledge of the constitution, the rule of law and fundamental human rights enables citizens to know and defend their rights and to resist oppression and abuse of power.
6. It promotes understanding of other systems and international relations: It enables one to understand different forms of government, foreign affairs and international organisations, encouraging tolerance and good relations among nations.

(Any five of the above are acceptable.)

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Nationalism developed more slowly in French-speaking West Africa than in the British territories. Five reasons for the slow rate of nationalism in French West Africa were:

1. The policy of assimilation: The French policy of assimilation aimed to turn Africans into Frenchmen. The educated elite were made to feel French and to identify with France rather than to demand independence, which delayed the growth of a nationalist consciousness.
2. Political integration with France: The colonies were regarded as overseas parts of France and were represented in the French Parliament in Paris. This integration made many leaders seek reforms and equality within the French union rather than separate nationhood.
3. Harsh and repressive administration (the assimilated/subject divide and the indigenat): French rule was highly centralised and authoritarian, and the system of forced labour and the indigenat (summary punishment of subjects) suppressed opposition and discouraged open agitation.
4. Limited Western education: The French provided fewer schools, so there were fewer educated Africans to lead nationalist agitation, compared with the larger educated class in British West Africa.
5. Absence of a free press and free political association: There was little freedom of the press, of speech and of association in French West Africa, so nationalist ideas could not spread easily as they did in the British colonies.
6. Privileges of the assimilated elite: Those who became French citizens enjoyed special privileges and status, and were therefore reluctant to fight against a system from which they benefited.
7. Deliberate suppression of nationalist leaders: The French authorities often exiled, imprisoned or transferred radical leaders and chiefs, weakening organised nationalist activity.

(Any five of the above are acceptable.)