JAMB UTME - Government - 2024

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The **Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)** was established on 28 May 1975. This establishment happened when a treaty was signed in Lagos, Nigeria, by the Heads of State and Government of 15 West African countries. The primary goal of ECOWAS is to promote economic integration and cooperation among its member states, which includes the free movement of goods, capital, and people, as well as the harmonization of policies and development of a unified economic space in the West African region.

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The term "bipolar world" is often associated with the period during the Cold War, where the world was primarily divided into two major power blocs: the United States and its allies, representing the capitalist Western bloc, and the Soviet Union along with its allies, representing the communist Eastern bloc. This division created a tension-filled global environment where countries felt pressured to align with one of these superpowers.

The formation of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) was significantly influenced by this bipolar world order. NAM emerged during the Cold War as countries, primarily from Asia, Africa, and Latin America, sought to maintain their independence and resist becoming pawns in the geopolitical power struggle between the United States and the Soviet Union. These countries desired to avoid being directly involved in the conflict between these two superpowers and instead focus on their own sovereignty, economic development, and social progress.

The philosophy of non-alignment promoted political and economic cooperation, peace, and mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity. It provided a platform that allowed member countries to stand united on certain issues without being categorized as belonging to either the Western or Eastern bloc. Thus, the bipolar dynamics of the global order encouraged these countries to form a movement where they could pursue a path free from the direct influence of the two superpowers.

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A major challenge of public corporations in Nigeria is political interference. Public corporations in Nigeria often face significant challenges due to political interference for several reasons:

• Decision Making: Politicians sometimes influence decisions in public corporations to align with their political interests rather than focusing on efficiency or profitability. This can lead to misallocation of resources and hinder the corporation's ability to achieve its objectives.
• Appointment of Personnel: Political interventions can lead to appointments based on favoritism rather than merit. This results in having unqualified personnel in leadership positions, which can negatively affect the management and operations of the corporation.
• Lack of Autonomy: Due to continuous political interference, public corporations often lack the autonomy needed to execute their mandates effectively. This can lead to delays and inefficiencies in service delivery.
• Policy Inconsistency: Frequent changes in government can bring about policy shifts that disrupt the operations of public corporations. This instability can affect long-term planning and development.

In conclusion, political interference poses a significant challenge because it undermines the ability of public corporations to operate efficiently, make strategic decisions, and focus on their core missions, leading to poor service delivery and financial performance.

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Delegated legislation refers to laws or regulations that are created by an individual or body under powers given to them by an Act of Parliament. It is an essential part of the legislative process as it allows for laws to be made without having to pass a new Act through Parliament.

There are several ways in which delegated legislation can be regulated effectively:

1. Ministerial Control: This involves the supervision and management of delegated legislation by the ministers who have been given the authority to create these laws. Ministers often have the power to approve, amend, or annul delegated legislation, ensuring that it aligns with the broader legislative intentions of the government.

2. Legislative Control: Parliament retains some degree of control over delegated legislation through various mechanisms. For example, delegated legislation may be subject to an affirmative resolution, requiring explicit approval by Parliament. Alternatively, there might be a negative resolution procedure, where the legislation automatically becomes law unless Parliament explicitly rejects it within a certain timeframe.

3. Executive Control: This refers to the oversight exercised by the executive branch, which includes government departments and agencies. They ensure that delegated legislation is consistent with existing policies and does not overstep the boundaries set by the parent Act. The executive may also conduct reviews and update the delegated legislation as necessary.

4. Judicial Control: The judiciary plays a crucial role in ensuring that delegated legislation is within the limits of the authority granted by the enabling Act. Courts can conduct judicial reviews to determine whether delegated legislation is valid. If a court finds that the legislation goes beyond the powers given or is unreasonable or oppressive, it can declare it invalid.

In conclusion, the regulation of delegated legislation is ensured through the combined efforts of ministerial, legislative, executive, and judicial controls, each serving as checks and balances to maintain proper legal and administrative order.

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Dual citizenship was a feature of the French colonial system.

In the French colonial system, the concept of dual citizenship existed under the idea called "assimilation." This meant that individuals living in French colonies, if they adopted French culture, language, and law, could gain some rights similar to those of French citizens. However, this was not automatic and usually applied to a select group within the colonies.

The French had two main groups in their colonies: "citoyens," who were considered full French citizens and had extensive rights, and "sujets," who were subjects of the French Empire with fewer rights. Through the process of assimilation, a subject could become a citizen, thus obtaining French citizenship while retaining their original identity, thereby leading to the idea of dual citizenship.

This approach was somewhat unique to the French system compared to other colonial systems where such a concept did not prominently exist.

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The local government reform in Nigeria that prevented traditional rulers from engaging in politics was the 1976 Reform.

Here's a simple explanation:

Prior to the 1976 reform, traditional rulers had significant influence and played active roles in both political and administrative affairs within their regions. This often created conflicts of interest and challenges in governance, as their roles were not clearly defined within the modern state structure.

The 1976 Local Government Reform was a significant restructuring of local governance. This reform aimed to establish a more uniform and systematic local government system throughout Nigeria. A vital aspect of this reform was to clearly define the roles and responsibilities of traditional rulers in order to separate traditional authority from political governance.

The reform stipulated that traditional rulers should no longer have executive or administrative roles in the formal local government system. This meant that they could not hold political office or engage in political activities, allowing for a clearer distinction between traditional roles and political governance.

Overall, the reform sought to create a more democratic and efficient local government structure by reducing political interference from traditional rulers, while still allowing them to preserve their cultural and traditional roles within their communities.

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The agent in which the state undertakes direct political socialization is the school.

Here's why:

Schools play a crucial role in political socialization, which is the process of learning and internalizing the values, beliefs, and norms of a political culture. Unlike other agents, schools are often directly influenced and regulated by the state. They are used as formal settings where the government can introduce and emphasize civic education, national history, laws, and political systems.

This means that students learn about their country’s political system, responsibilities as citizens, and democratic principles through the curriculum designed and enforced by the educational authorities, which are typically linked to the state. Schools also celebrate national holidays and instill patriotic sentiments through various activities and programs.

On the other hand, the church may impart spiritual and moral values, the peer groups influence behavior and social norms, and the mass media shape public opinion. However, these are not typically under direct state control for political socialization.

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The formation of political parties in Nigeria is one of the features of the Clifford Constitution that was introduced in 1922. This constitution facilitated the establishment of legislative councils and allowed for the election of Nigerian members, although on a limited scale, to the legislative council in Lagos and Calabar. This political framework became a significant breeding ground for political activism.

One of the notable outcomes of this constitution was the emergence of political parties. The most significant of these was the **Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP)**, founded by Herbert Macaulay in 1923. This was the first political party in Nigeria, marking the birth of organized political movements that aimed to represent the interests of Nigerians in governance.

In summary, the Clifford Constitution laid down the groundwork for political participation and introduced elements of electoral democracy, such as electing members to the legislative councils. This setting provided the necessary motivation and structure for the formation of early political parties in Nigeria.

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The rule of law is a fundamental concept in legal and political theory that ensures that all individuals and entities are subject to and accountable to law that is fairly applied and enforced. Among the features listed, a basic feature of the rule of law is the concept of Equality before the law.

Equality before the law means that every person, regardless of status, wealth, ethnicity, or power, is subject to the same laws and entitled to the same legal protections. This feature ensures that the laws are applied uniformly, providing a foundation for fairness and justice in society. It contrasts with practices or systems where certain individuals or groups may be above the law or treated differently based on arbitrary distinctions.

In comparison, the other features mentioned, such as secret trials of offenders, unlimited power of the executive, and a dependent judiciary, do not align with the principles of the rule of law. Secret trials undermine transparency and accountability, unlimited power of the executive leads to tyranny, and a dependent judiciary erodes justice by compromising independence and impartiality.

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The collective views of the citizens on a specific national matter is known as public opinion.

Public opinion refers to the aggregate of individual attitudes or beliefs about a particular topic or issue that is significant to the society at large. It represents the general consensus or the majority viewpoint of the people within a nation. This opinion is often measured through surveys, polls, media reports, and other means of gauging how the populace feels or thinks about a specific matter.

Public opinion is vital in a democracy because it can influence policy decisions, election outcomes, and the actions of government officials. It reflects what citizens believe to be important, usually based on their values, experiences, and available information.

In summary, public opinion is the term that best describes the aggregate views of individuals within a society on issues of national importance.

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The commission responsible for conducting the elections that ushered in the Fourth Republic in Nigeria is the **Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC).

1. Background: Nigeria has had a series of transitions between different government structures, moving from military rule to democratic governance. The Fourth Republic, which is the current phase of Nigeria's democratic history, started in 1999.

2. Role of INEC: The Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) was established in 1998 and was given the responsibility of overseeing and conducting the elections that led to the transition to the Fourth Republic in 1999. INEC organized and supervised the elections for various political offices, including the presidency, which marked the beginning of civilian rule after a long period of military government.

3. **Importance:** The establishment of INEC and the successful conduct of the 1999 elections were crucial as they paved the way for democratic governance in Nigeria. INEC continues to be responsible for organizing elections in Nigeria, ensuring transparency and fairness in the electoral process.

In summary, INEC played a pivotal role in ushering in the Fourth Republic by conducting the elections that transitioned Nigeria from military rule to a democratic government in 1999.

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Nigeria operated a two-party system during the aborted Third Republic. This system involves having only two major political parties that dominate the political landscape, often leading to simpler choices for voters. In the case of Nigeria's Third Republic, the government officially sanctioned and recognized two political parties:

• Social Democratic Party (SDP)
• National Republican Convention (NRC)

In this system, both parties competed for political power, emulating a structure seen in several Western democracies, such as the United States. The goal was to create a more stable and efficient political environment by reducing the complexities and conflicts that can arise from multiple parties. Unfortunately, this attempt was short-lived because the Third Republic was prematurely ended by a military coup before the system could become entrenched.

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The Nigerian Civil War, also known as the Biafran War, was fought during the military regime of Yakubu Gowon. This war lasted from 1967 to 1970. It began due to ethnic, political, economic, and religious tensions among the various regions of Nigeria.

Yakubu Gowon became the head of state after Major General Aguiyi Ironsi was assassinated in 1966. Gowon was tasked with keeping Nigeria united during a period of intense upheaval. When the Southeastern region, led by Colonel Odumegwu Ojukwu, declared independence as the Republic of Biafra in 1967, it led to a brutal and devastating conflict.

Gowon's administration focused on reunifying the country through military action, which eventually led to the surrender of Biafra in 1970. Under his leadership, efforts were made to rebuild and reconcile the nation following the end of hostilities. Thus, the Nigerian Civil War is closely associated with Yakubu Gowon's regime.

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The form of government where the powers of the state are determined by the citizens is Democracy.

In a Democracy, the power to make decisions about laws, policies, and the leadership of the country is vested in the hands of the people. This is typically done through various forms of participation such as voting in elections. When citizens vote for their leaders and on specific political issues, they exercise their power to shape the way the government operates.

A Democracy is characterized by several core principles:

• Popular Sovereignty: The authority of the government is created and sustained by the consent of its people, through their elected representatives.
• Political Equality: Each citizen has an equal say in the decisions that affect their lives, regardless of their background or status.
• Protection of Rights: Democracies strive to protect the rights and freedoms of individuals, ensuring that everyone is treated equally under the law.
• Accountability: Elected officials are accountable to the people, and they can be replaced through free and fair elections if they do not perform their duties properly.

In contrast to other forms of government such as Monarchy, Aristocracy, and Autocracy, where power is held by one person or a specific group, a Democracy ensures that the power rests with the people, making it the most inclusive form of governance.

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A major instrument designed to promote the workings of Nigerian federalism is the Federal Character Commission.

The Federal Character Commission (FCC) is tasked with ensuring that there is equal representation and diversity across all sectors of the Nigerian government, which is crucial for maintaining balance in a federal system like Nigeria's. Nigeria is a multicultural and multi-ethnic nation, and federalism here demands that every ethnic group feels represented and included in government affairs.

The FCC works to ensure that appointments and the distribution of resources reflect the geographic diversity of the country. It aims to eliminate any form of dominance by a particular region or group over others, thus promoting fairness and inclusivity. This is key to fostering national unity and stability, as it helps to prevent regional and ethnic tensions by giving all groups a sense of participation in the federation.

By focusing on equitable inclusion, the Federal Character Commission plays a vital role in enhancing social cohesion, which is essential for the effective functioning of Nigerian federalism.

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The fundamental objective guiding a nation's foreign policy is primarily its own national interest. Understanding a nation’s foreign policy involves comprehending the actions and decisions made by a country in its relations with other countries. Let's break this down in a simple way:

National Interest: This refers to the goals or ambitions of a nation. Each nation prioritizes its own security, economic well-being, and cultural values above all else. The foreign policy is crafted to promote the stability, prosperity, and welfare of its citizens. For instance, they might form alliances for security, engage in trade deals to boost their economy, or participate in international agreements that benefit their environment or public health.

Other interests like foreign interest, African interest, or colonial interest, while they may play a role in particular contexts or historical periods, are secondary concerns. Foreign interest might involve strategic diplomacy with other nations for mutual benefits, African interest may relate to regional partnerships or alliances within the continent for advanced cooperation, and colonial interest might pertain to historical ties or responsibilities resulting from a colonial past.

In conclusion, while a nation may consider external factors, the driving force of its foreign policy remains the national interest, which is principally focused on ensuring the best outcomes for its own country and people.

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The Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM) played a significant role in advocating for the rights and interests of Nigerians during the colonial period. They pursued their objectives through a mix of **protest**, **newspapers**, and **strike actions**. Here’s a simple explanation:

• Protest: The NYM organized and engaged in peaceful protests to voice their grievances against colonial policies. These protests were aimed at drawing attention to unjust practices and demanding reforms in governance and civil rights.


• Newspapers: The movement made effective use of newspapers to spread their ideas and rally support. Through editorials, articles, and opinion pieces, they communicated their messages and informed the public about the need for change, thereby reaching a wider audience beyond their immediate members.


• Strike Actions: The NYM also engaged in or supported strike actions, which were powerful tools to disrupt colonial economic activities and demand better working conditions and policies. Strikes were a way to exert pressure on the authorities to address their concerns.

The combination of these strategies helped the Nigerian Youth Movement to effectively pursue their objectives and lay the groundwork for future political activism in Nigeria. They demonstrated the power of organized advocacy in challenging unjust systems.

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In Hausa pre-colonial administration, the office of the Prime Minister was usually occupied by the Waziri. The Hausa societies during pre-colonial times had a well-structured and organized system of governance similar to a centralized form of government.

The Sarki, or king, was the head of the administration, but he had a council of officials to help with governance. Among these officials, the Waziri was considered the most important after the king. He played a significant role in administration, acting as the chief advisor and assistant to the Sarki. The Waziri was responsible for advising the Sarki on state matters and often managed day-to-day administrative duties, making him equivalent to what we might think of as a Prime Minister today.

The Galadima was usually responsible for the affairs of the city, and the Madawaki typically handled military matters, specifically relating to cavalry. Thus, the role of the Waziri was more aligned with the duties of a Prime Minister.

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The major objective of **price stability in the international oil market** is primarily associated with the **Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)**.

OPEC is an organization consisting of oil-producing countries, and its primary aim is to **coordinate and unify the petroleum policies** of its member countries. This coordination ensures that the oil market is stable, prices are reasonable, and there is a consistent supply of oil to consumers.

OPEC achieves this by determining the **production levels** of its member countries. By doing so, it can either increase or decrease oil production to influence oil prices. For instance, if there is too much oil in the market, leading to falling prices, OPEC may choose to lower production to stabilize or increase prices.

This function is not a direct objective of organizations such as the **United Nations (UN)**, which focuses on maintaining international peace and security, or the **World Trade Organization (WTO)**, which addresses trade rules between countries. Similarly, the **African Union (AU)** concentrates on regional integration and development within Africa.

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Shehu Shagari won the 1979 Presidential Election under the political party known as the National Party of Nigeria (NPN). This was a significant event in Nigerian history as it marked the transition from military rule to a civilian government. The NPN was known for its appeal across various regions of Nigeria and promoted a message of national unity. It was a dominant political force during the Second Republic of Nigeria, which began in 1979 after the military handed over power to the civilian government. The election of Shehu Shagari as President reflected the support and influence the NPN had at that time.

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The courts can declare any act made by some corporations illegal or unconstitutional. This is done when they are breaching the Act upon which they are set up. 

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ECOWAS, which stands for the Economic Community of West African States, is a regional group established to promote economic integration in all fields of economic activity among the West African countries. The organization has several principal organs through which it implements its functions and responsibilities. Here’s a breakdown to clarify which one does not belong:

1. Council of Ministers: This is an organ of ECOWAS, comprising ministers from the member states. It is responsible for taking decisions on matters under the direction of the Heads of State and Government, and for implementing policies.

2. Secretariat: Initially, ECOWAS had a Secretariat, but it has been transformed into the ECOWAS Commission. This change emphasizes greater efficiency and the improvement of ECOWAS's functions. The Commission serves as the executive arm, implementing policies, fostering economic integration, and driving development programs.

3. Conference: There is no organ named “Conference” in ECOWAS. The highest decision-making body within ECOWAS is the Conference of Heads of State and Government. This body sets major priorities and policies, providing direction for the organization.

4. Community Tribunal: ECOWAS has a Community Court of Justice, commonly referred to as the ECOWAS Court of Justice. It ensures the observance of law and justice in the interpretation and application of ECOWAS Treaty provisions.

Based on the information provided, "Conference" is not formally referred to as an organ. Instead, it might refer to the gathering of the Heads of State and Government, which is formally organized but not labeled as an organ.

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The rule of law is an essential ingredient of democracy.

To understand why, let me explain the key concepts:

Rule of Law: It means that the laws of a country are applied equally and fairly to all its citizens. No one is above the law, not even leaders or government officials. It ensures justice, equality, and accountability within a society.

Democracy: It is a system of government where the power comes from the people. Citizens elect representatives to make decisions and create laws on their behalf. Democracy relies on principles such as freedom, equality, and transparency.

Now, let's see why the rule of law is crucial for democracy:

• Protection of Rights: In a democracy, the rule of law ensures that citizens' rights and freedoms are protected from abuse by the government or other individuals.
• Equality: Democracy is based on the principle that everyone is equal, and the rule of law enforces this by treating all individuals the same under the law.
• Limit on Power: The rule of law puts checks and balances on those in power, preventing them from making arbitrary decisions and ensuring they act according to the established laws.
• Accountability: In a democracy, leaders and government bodies are accountable to the people, and the rule of law is the mechanism that holds them accountable.

In summary, without the rule of law, a democracy cannot function effectively as it ensures that everyone is treated fairly, rights are upheld, and government power is kept in check.

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Nigeria has played significant roles in the creation and sustenance of some key international organizations. Let's discuss these contributions in simple terms.

ECOWAS (Economic Community of West African States):
Nigeria was a major architect in the formation of ECOWAS, which was established in 1975. The country recognized the need for economic cooperation among West African countries to foster regional development, stability, and to improve living standards. Nigeria's leadership and dedication were crucial in bringing together sixteen West African countries to create ECOWAS. It aimed to promote economic integration, free trade, and cooperation in various fields such as agriculture, culture, and industry.

OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries):
Although Nigeria was not one of the founding members of OPEC when it was formed in 1960, Nigeria joined OPEC in 1971. Nigeria's role has since become essential due to its position as one of Africa's largest oil producers. Through OPEC, Nigeria has been involved in decisions affecting global oil prices and oil policies, reflecting the interests of oil-exporting countries.

UN (United Nations):
Nigeria became a member of the United Nations in 1960, shortly after gaining independence. While Nigeria was not involved in the founding of the UN, it has played an active role as a member. Nigeria has contributed to peacekeeping missions, provided diplomatic support, and worked within the UN framework to address global issues such as poverty, health, and security. Nigeria’s participation is vital, given its status as a significant nation on the African continent.

Commonwealth:
Nigeria joined the Commonwealth of Nations in 1960 following its independence from British colonial rule. As a member, Nigeria participates in activities to foster cooperation among member states in areas such as democracy, human rights, and development. It has also hosted Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings. Although it didn't play a role in the creation, Nigeria has been an active and influential member.

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An economic system that encourages state ownership and control of the means of production is socialism. In socialism, the government takes charge of operating and managing industries, businesses, and resources. The core idea is to distribute wealth and resources more equally among all members of society. The belief is that by having the state own and manage the means of production, rather than private individuals or corporations, resources can be used for the common good and help reduce economic inequality. While both socialism and communism involve government control, socialism is generally less extreme and allows for some level of private ownership and individual economic choice.

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Lack of separation of power is primarily a feature of a military government.

In a typical democratic framework, like a presidential system or a cabinet system, power is usually divided among different branches: the executive, the legislative, and the judiciary. This division is known as the separation of powers. It ensures that no single entity has absolute control, and it balances the powers among various branches of government.

On the other hand, a military government usually centralizes power within a single authority or group, often led by military leaders. In such systems, the military might control the executive power and possibly influence or directly control legislative and judicial functions. This centralized control eliminates the typical checks and balances provided by a separation of powers, leading to a system where one group or leader may wield broad, unchecked authority.

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The responsibility for the recruitment and promotion of civil servants in Nigeria falls under the **Civil Service Commission**. This Commission is an essential governmental body specifically tasked with overseeing and managing the employment lifecycle of civil servants within the public sector. This includes their **recruitment**, **promotion**, **disciplinary actions**, and **retirement**.

The **Civil Service Commission** is designed to ensure that there is a **fair and transparent** process in the management of civil servants, which is crucial for upholding the principles of **meritocracy** and **efficiency** in public service. They are responsible for setting **guidelines**, conducting **interviews**, administering **exams**, and executing **promotional reviews** to ensure that the principles of a **professional and accountable civil service** are maintained.

In summary, while there are other commissions for specific sectors such as the **Federal Character Commission**, **National Universities Commission**, and the **Federal Judicial Commission**, it is the **Civil Service Commission** that is primarily concerned with the affairs of civil servants in terms of recruitment and promotion. Their work plays a critical role in maintaining a **competent and equitable** public service system in Nigeria.

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The adoption of a federal system of government in Nigeria is primarily motivated by the need to promote autonomy of states and promote unity in diversity.

Promote the Autonomy of States:
Nigeria is a country with various ethnic groups and cultures. The federal system allows each state, which may represent a particular ethnic or cultural group, to have some degree of self-governance. This means that states can make decisions best suited to their local circumstances, as they have control over certain areas such as education, healthcare, and infrastructure development. By fostering autonomy, the federal system helps prevent dominance by a single ethnic group and allows for more nuanced governance that can address the specific needs and aspirations of different regions.

Promote Unity in Diversity:
Nigerian society is highly diverse, with over 250 ethnic groups. A federal system accommodates this diversity by ensuring that different groups have representation and participation in governance. This system helps in managing diversity by allowing various ethnic groups to coexist peacefully under a central government while maintaining their unique identities and rights. It encourages cooperation and collaboration amongst the states, which contributes to national unity. By integrating diverse groups into a single political framework, the federal system helps to strengthen national identity and cohesion, thus promoting unity.

Ultimately, the federal system in Nigeria seeks to balance the need for a strong central government while respecting the cultural and ethnic diversity that characterizes its population. This balance helps maintain peace, stability, and development across the nation.

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One of the internal factors that contributed significantly to the rise and growth of nationalism in Nigeria was the return of ex-service men after World War II. These men had served alongside soldiers from other nations, gaining exposure to international ideas and practices. Here is a simple explanation:

• During World War II, many Nigerians served in the British military forces. This gave them the opportunity to travel overseas, interact with people from different countries, and witness a broader perspective on governance and rights.
• Upon returning home, these ex-servicemen were often faced with a lack of opportunities and poor economic conditions, despite their sacrifices during the war.
• This dissatisfaction led them to become more vocal and proactive in demanding better rights, conditions, and ultimately, self-governance for Nigerians. They played a crucial role in political mobilization and organization.
• Their experiences and discontent became a shared sentiment among many educated Nigerians, paving the way for a united nationalist movement aimed at ending colonial rule.

In summary, the return of ex-service men was a catalyst in fostering a stronger sense of national identity and solidarity among Nigerians, fueling the desire for independence and self-governance.

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The judgement that ceded and transferred the Bakassi Peninsula's legal title from Nigeria to Cameroon was delivered by the International Court of Justice (ICJ). This court is the primary judicial branch of the United Nations, whose role is to settle legal disputes submitted by states and give advisory opinions on legal matters. The ICJ's decision was based on various historical treaties and agreements as well as international law, following a lengthy legal process. In October 2002, the ICJ ruled that the territory legally belonged to Cameroon, and this led to the eventual transfer of the disputed region. Understanding this jurisdiction and the case's global significance can help comprehend international territorial disputes and the function of the ICJ.

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The Aburi Accord was a popular phrase during the administration of General Yakubu Gowon. This accord refers to a series of negotiations and agreements that took place in January 1967 at Aburi, Ghana, involving representatives of the military government of Nigeria and regional leaders to address the growing political tensions in Nigeria.

The primary aim of the Aburi Accord was to resolve disagreements about the country's governance and to prevent a looming civil war. Key issues discussed included the decentralization of power, the military structure, and resource control. Unfortunately, the agreements made at Aburi were not fully implemented upon return to Nigeria, leading to further tensions.

The failure to adhere to the Aburi Accord was one of the factors that contributed to the outbreak of the Nigerian Civil War, also known as the Biafran War, in 1967. Therefore, the Aburi Accord is closely associated with General Yakubu Gowon's leadership during that critical time in Nigeria's history.

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Lawyers recruited into the civil service belong to the professional class.

The reason for this is quite straightforward. In any organization, whether in the civil service or elsewhere, the term "professional class" often refers to positions that require specialized knowledge and qualifications. Lawyers are individuals who have undergone extensive education and training in the field of law, resulting in a professional degree (such as a Juris Doctor) and often the passing of a bar examination to practice law.

Within the civil service, professions like medicine, accountancy, and law fall under the "professional class" because these roles depend on a specific set of skills and deep knowledge in a regulated field. Lawyers contribute their expertise in legal matters such as policy formulation, compliance, and legislative processes.

In contrast, the other classes you mentioned serve different roles within the civil service:

• The administrative class typically involves positions that deal with the management and administration of public policy and government operations.
• The executive class may refer to senior-level officials who are responsible for leading departments and making significant decisions.
• The clerical class usually consists of positions that involve routine office tasks, record-keeping, and support duties.

Given the requirement for specialized legal expertise, lawyers are most suitably classified under the professional class in the civil service.

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The term that describes the political subjugation and economic exploitation of a people is colonialism.

Colonialism is a practice where a powerful country directly takes control of a weaker country or region. This control often involves sending settlers to occupy the land and rule it politically. The goal of colonialism is typically to extract resources, control trade routes, and exploit the local population for economic gain.

Under colonialism, the indigenous people of a region often suffer because their political freedom is taken away, and they are subjected to foreign rule. The colonizing power can impose its culture, language, and laws on the local population. Economically, the resources of the colonized region are often extracted and used for the benefit of the colonizing country, rather than for the development of the local population. This exploitation often leads to significant inequalities and unfair distribution of wealth.

To summarize, when we talk about political subjugation and economic exploitation of a people, we are referring to colonialism, as it encompasses both the loss of political control by the local populace and the economic exploitation of their resources and labor by a foreign power.

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The term used to describe the aggregate view of individuals in a society is called public opinion. Public opinion represents the collective attitudes, beliefs, and preferences on a particular topic or issue held by the general population, usually in the context of political, social, or economic matters.

Public opinion is often measured through surveys and polls, and it provides insights into what people think, feel, and believe at a given point in time. Understanding public opinion helps policymakers, leaders, and organizations gauge the mood of the society, predict future trends, and make informed decisions.

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The first military intervention in Nigerian politics occurred in the year 1966. This intervention marked a significant and drastic shift in Nigeria's political landscape. Prior to this, Nigeria had functioned as a parliamentary democracy after gaining independence from British colonial rule in 1960.

In January 1966, Nigeria experienced its first military coup, which was led by a group of army officers. These officers were dissatisfied with the political climate at the time, which was characterized by alleged corruption, ethnic tension, and political instability within the civilian government.

During the coup, several political leaders, including the Prime Minister, Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, were assassinated. This coup ultimately led to the suspension of the constitution and the end of the First Republic, paving the way for military rule in Nigeria.

The consequences of this intervention were far-reaching, as it started a series of coups and counter-coups in the years that followed, profoundly impacting Nigeria's political history and development. The military would go on to rule for many years, with brief interruptions by civilian administrations, until the eventual return to civilian rule in 1999.

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The colonial constitution in Nigeria that endured for the longest period was the Clifford Constitution. It was introduced by Governor Hugh Clifford in 1922 and remained in effect until the introduction of the Macpherson Constitution in 1951. Therefore, the Clifford Constitution lasted approximately 29 years.

The Clifford Constitution is significant because it introduced the first electoral system, allowing Nigerians to elect representatives to the legislative council in Lagos and Calabar. This introduction marked the beginning of elective representation in Nigeria. The Clifford Constitution also laid the foundation for future constitutional developments by encouraging political consciousness and participation among Nigerians.

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To answer the question about which constitution first introduced a presidential system, it is important to understand that a presidential system is a form of government where the president is the head of state as well as the head of government, and there is a distinct separation between the executive and legislative branches.

The constitution that introduced the presidential system for the first time in Nigeria was the 1979 Constitution. This constitution marked a significant departure from the previously used parliamentary system, adopting a system more similar to that of the United States. In the 1979 Constitution of Nigeria, the president was given executive powers, separating this role from the legislature, which was a distinct shift in governance structure. This move aimed to enhance checks and balances, and prevent the concentration of power in a single branch of government.

In conclusion, the 1979 Constitution was pivotal in introducing the presidential system to Nigeria.

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In the context of Nigeria during the 1960s, the **most effective instrument** adopted by the country against the East-West Cold War was the **Non-alignment policy**. This policy aimed to maintain Nigeria's independence and neutrality by avoiding formal alliances with either of the two superpower blocs, the United States-led Western bloc or the Soviet Union-led Eastern bloc.

The **Non-alignment policy** provided several key benefits that contributed to its effectiveness:

Independence and Sovereignty: By not aligning with either superpower, Nigeria was able to maintain its sovereignty and make independent foreign policy decisions without the pressure or influence from either side.

Flexibility in Diplomacy: The policy allowed Nigeria to engage diplomatically with various nations, regardless of their ideological leanings. This enabled Nigeria to pursue bilateral relationships that were beneficial for its own national interest without being confined to a specific bloc.

Focus on Development: By adopting a stance of non-alignment, Nigeria could focus more on its domestic economic development and regional leadership within Africa, rather than getting entangled in the Cold War conflicts.

Overall, the **Non-alignment policy** effectively allowed Nigeria to navigate the geopolitical tensions of the Cold War while preserving its independence and focusing on its national interests and development goals.

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Before a treaty can be binding on a country, it typically has to be approved by the legislature. This is because the legislative branch of government is usually responsible for making laws and approving international agreements. The process involves a few key steps. First, the treaty is negotiated and signed by members of the executive branch, such as the president or prime minister and other officials. However, signature alone does not mean the treaty is fully accepted. To ensure that the treaty is consistent with the country's laws and policies, the legislature must review and ratify it.

Once the legislature has examined the treaty, they may hold debates and discussions to assess its implications. They need to ensure that the treaty aligns with the country's national interest and legal framework. If the legislature agrees, they will give their consent, thereby making the treaty legally binding. This legislative approval process allows for checks and balances in government, ensuring that the treaty undergoes thorough scrutiny by representatives of the people.

The judiciary is not directly involved in the treaty approval process; instead, they interpret laws and may address any legal disputes regarding treaties. The military does not play a role in approving treaties; their role is more about implementing defense-related strategies and policies that may arise from such treaties once they are enacted.

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The Nigerian Ports Authority (NPA) is an example of a Public Corporation.

To understand why, let's break down the term "Public Corporation". A public corporation is a state-owned enterprise established by the government to carry out specific functions, often of a commercial nature, for the benefit of the public. They are characterized by the following:

• Government Ownership: They are owned and funded by the government to provide certain essential services to the public.
• Operational Independence: While they are government-owned, public corporations often have a degree of operational autonomy. This means they can operate with some independence, similar to private companies, but within the legal frameworks set by the government.
• Service Provision: They provide goods and services that are necessary for public welfare, such as utilities, transportation, or other vital sectors, where the private sector might be inefficient or unable to provide these services universally.
• Commercial Activities: Although they serve public interests, public corporations may engage in commercial activities and charge for their services, akin to private companies.

The Nigerian Ports Authority fits this description because it is a government-owned organization responsible for managing and operating the ports in Nigeria. It ensures that the ports function efficiently, handling imports and exports crucial for the country's economy. While it performs this essential public service, it also engages in commercial activities by charging fees for its services in loading, unloading, and storage in the ports.

In summary, the NPA functions as a government-established entity that balances public service with commercial operations, typifying a Public Corporation.