WAEC SSCE - Government - 2010 (Essay)

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(a) Distinction between a Secretary of State for the Colonies and a Governor-General

(b) Functions of the Governor-General in British West Africa shortly after independence

1. Ceremonial Head of State: He represented the Queen and performed ceremonial and formal duties on her behalf.
2. Appointment of the Prime Minister: He formally appointed the leader of the majority party in Parliament as Prime Minister.
3. Assent to bills: He gave the royal assent that turned bills passed by Parliament into law.
4. Summoning, proroguing and dissolving Parliament: He performed these functions on the advice of the Prime Minister.
5. Appointment of ministers and other officials: He formally appointed ministers, judges and senior officers on the advice of the Prime Minister.

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The 1954 Lyttleton Constitution introduced several important political changes into the Nigerian political system. Six of them are highlighted below.

1. Introduction of a true federal system: Nigeria formally became a federation of three regions (Northern, Western and Eastern) with a clear division of powers between the centre and the regions.
2. Lagos made a federal territory: Lagos was separated from the Western Region and made the federal capital territory.
3. Regional autonomy and premiers: Each region was given greater autonomy, and the post of Regional Premier was created to head each regional government.
4. Distribution of legislative powers: Exclusive, concurrent and residual legislative lists were introduced to share powers between the federal and regional governments.
5. Regionalisation of the public/civil service and judiciary: The civil service and certain services were regionalised so that regions could run their own.
6. Provision for regional self-government: Regions were allowed to become self-governing when ready, which the East and West achieved in 1957 and the North in 1959.

It also abolished the office of the central Governor's control over regional executive matters and strengthened the powers of the regions.

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(a) Meaning of an absolute majority system

The absolute majority system is an electoral system in which a candidate must secure more than half of the total votes cast (that is, at least 50 percent plus one vote) in order to be declared the winner, rather than merely obtaining more votes than any other single candidate. Where no candidate obtains such an absolute majority in the first ballot, a second ballot (run-off) is usually held between the two leading candidates, or votes are redistributed through preferential voting, until one candidate emerges with an absolute majority. It is designed to ensure that the winner enjoys the support of the majority of the voters.

(b) Five disadvantages of the system

1. It is expensive: The conduct of a second ballot or run-off election involves additional cost in money, materials and manpower for the electoral body.
2. It is time consuming and delays results: Where a second ballot is required, the declaration of the final winner is delayed, and governance may suffer during the interval.
3. Possible voter apathy and fatigue: Voters may become tired and reluctant to turn out again for a second round of voting, leading to low turnout.
4. It can lead to unhealthy alliances and horse-trading: Between the two ballots, candidates may enter into opportunistic and unprincipled deals with eliminated candidates merely to secure votes.
5. It may generate tension and disputes: The prolonged process and the run-off can heighten political tension, rivalry and the risk of violence.
6. It is complicated to administer: Especially where preferential or transferable voting is used, the counting and transfer of votes can be complex and confusing to ordinary voters.
7. It may still not reflect first preferences fairly: A candidate who led in the first ballot may lose in the run-off, which some voters view as unfair.

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(a) Composition of the General Assembly of the UNO

1. It is composed of all the member states of the United Nations, each state being a member of the Assembly.
2. Each member state is entitled to send a delegation of up to five representatives.
3. Despite the size of the delegation, each member state has only one vote, reflecting the sovereign equality of states.
4. It meets in regular annual sessions, and may hold special or emergency sessions when necessary.
5. It elects its own President and Vice-Presidents for each session and conducts its business through several main committees.

(b) Functions of the General Assembly

1. Deliberation on world issues: It discusses any matter within the scope of the UN Charter, including questions of peace and security, and makes recommendations.
2. Control of the UN budget: It considers and approves the budget and apportions the financial contributions of member states.
3. Admission of new members: It admits new members, and may suspend or expel members, on the recommendation of the Security Council.
4. Election of members to other UN organs: It elects the non-permanent members of the Security Council, members of the Economic and Social Council, and, with the Security Council, appoints the Secretary-General and elects judges of the International Court of Justice.

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(a) Definition of feudalism

Feudalism was a social, political and economic system that prevailed in medieval Europe (and in similar forms elsewhere) in which land was the basis of power and social relations. Under it, the king owned all the land and granted large estates (fiefs) to nobles or lords in return for their loyalty and military service. The lords in turn allotted portions of land to peasants or serfs, who worked the land and rendered services and dues to the lord in exchange for protection and the right to farm. Society was rigidly divided into fixed classes (the king, the nobility, the clergy and the serfs) with the serfs at the bottom, tied to the land and owing obligations to their overlords.

(b) Five demerits of feudalism

1. Exploitation and oppression of the serfs: The peasants were made to work for the lords under harsh conditions, paying heavy dues and services while receiving little in return.
2. Rigid class stratification with no social mobility: Society was divided into fixed classes and a person born a serf remained a serf; there was little or no opportunity to rise.
3. Denial of freedom and rights: The serfs were tied to the land and to their lords, could not move about freely and were treated almost like property, lacking basic liberties.
4. Concentration of power and wealth in a few: Land, wealth and political power were held by the king and a small class of nobles, breeding gross inequality.
5. It bred constant conflict and instability: Rivalry among the lords and their private armies led to frequent wars and disorder, weakening central authority.
6. It retarded economic and technological progress: The self-sufficient manorial economy discouraged trade, industry, invention and the growth of towns.

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In pre-colonial West Africa, traditional rulers performed a wide range of roles in the governance of their societies. Six of these roles are outlined below.

1. Political/administrative head: The ruler was the head of the community and directed its administration with the aid of a council of chiefs and elders.
2. Chief judge: He settled disputes, interpreted and enforced customary law, and punished offenders as the highest judicial authority.
3. Religious/spiritual leader: As a sacred figure, he served as the intermediary between the people and the gods or ancestors and presided over religious festivals and rituals.
4. Military commander: He organised and commanded the community's warriors to defend the people and, where necessary, to expand the territory.
5. Custodian of land and economic resources: He held communal land in trust, allocated farmland, and controlled markets, tolls and tributes.
6. Law-maker and custodian of customs: Working with his council, he made rules for the community and preserved its customs, values and traditions.

He also served as the symbol of unity and the representative of his people in relations with neighbouring communities.

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(a) Definition of opinion poll

An opinion poll is a method of sampling and measuring the views, feelings and attitudes of a section of the public on a particular issue, candidate or policy, by questioning a carefully selected representative sample of the population and using their responses to estimate what the whole population thinks. It is a scientific tool for gauging public opinion, commonly used before elections to predict likely outcomes or to assess the popularity of a government or its programmes.

(b) Five factors that make the conduct of public opinion unreliable in West Africa

1. High level of illiteracy: A large proportion of the population cannot read or understand the questions, so their responses are often uninformed or wrongly recorded, distorting the results.
2. Poor communication and transport network: Many rural and remote communities are inaccessible, so pollsters cannot reach a truly representative sample of the population.
3. Ethnic, religious and sectional sentiments: Responses are frequently coloured by tribe, religion and sectional loyalty rather than by genuine opinion on the issue, biasing the outcome.
4. Fear and suspicion: Many people, out of fear of victimisation by government or others, give false or guarded answers or refuse to disclose their true feelings.
5. Inadequate funds and trained personnel: Poll organisations often lack sufficient money and skilled, honest interviewers to design and conduct polls properly, leading to sampling and processing errors.
6. Manipulation and bias of the pollsters or sponsors: Polls are sometimes sponsored and rigged by interested parties to produce predetermined results.
7. Unstable and changing opinions: Public opinion is fluid and people frequently change their minds, so a poll taken at one time may not hold at another.
8. Lack of accurate population data: The absence of reliable census figures makes it difficult to draw a properly representative sample.

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(a) Definition of a public corporation

A public corporation is a state-owned enterprise established by an Act of Parliament or a decree, with a legal personality of its own, to provide essential goods and services to the public and/or to carry out commercial activities on behalf of the government. Examples in Nigeria include the Nigerian Ports Authority and the Power Holding Company. It is managed by a board appointed by the government but enjoys some measure of autonomy in its day-to-day operations.

(b) Reasons for setting up public corporations

1. To provide essential services: Some services (water, electricity, ports, railways) are so vital that they cannot be left entirely to private profit-seekers.
2. To avoid private monopoly and exploitation: Government ownership prevents private individuals from monopolising essential services and overcharging the public.
3. To provide services requiring huge capital: Some ventures need capital too large for private investors to raise.
4. To create employment: Public corporations provide jobs for many citizens.
5. To promote even development: Government can site corporations in less-developed areas to spread development, which private investors might avoid.

Other reasons include the desire to control strategic sectors of the economy and to generate revenue for the state.

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The National Party of Nigeria (NPN), led by President Shehu Shagari, governed at the centre during the Second Republic (1979-1983) and recorded the following achievements.

1. Maintenance of democratic civilian rule: It sustained the presidential system of government after thirteen years of military rule, keeping the democratic experiment alive.
2. The Green Revolution programme: It launched agricultural schemes aimed at boosting food production and achieving self-sufficiency in food.
3. Housing programme: It embarked on a low-cost housing scheme to provide affordable homes for Nigerians across the country.
4. Expansion of infrastructure: It embarked on the construction of roads, and continued work on projects such as the Ajaokuta Steel Complex and other industries.
5. Promotion of national unity: Through its policy of spreading appointments and projects across the country, it fostered a sense of belonging among the various groups (the "federal character" principle).
6. Active foreign policy: It pursued an Africa-centred foreign policy and contributed to regional cooperation through ECOWAS and support for liberation movements.

It also won re-election in 1983, and promoted universal primary education and expanded the frontiers of tertiary education.

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(a) Composition of the Executive Council of the 1922 Clifford Constitution

The Executive Council under the Clifford Constitution was purely an advisory and official body dominated by the British. It was composed as follows.

1. The Governor, who presided over the council.
2. Senior colonial officials, namely the Chief Secretary, the Attorney-General, the Financial Secretary and other heads of government departments (all Europeans).
3. It contained no African members, and it merely advised the Governor, who was not bound to accept its advice.

(b) Significance of the Clifford Constitution to Nigeria

1. Introduction of the elective principle: It allowed, for the first time, the election of Africans into the Legislative Council.
2. Emergence of political parties: It led to the formation of parties such as Herbert Macaulay's Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) in 1923.
3. Growth of nationalism and political awareness: Electioneering stimulated political consciousness and press activity.
4. Expansion of the Legislative Council: It enlarged the council and gave it responsibility for law-making for the Colony and Southern Provinces.
5. Foundation for future constitutional development: It set the stage for later constitutions (Richards, Macpherson, Lyttleton) that widened African participation.

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(a) Meaning of foreign policy

Foreign policy is the set of principles, objectives and strategies that guide a country's relations and dealings with other countries and international organisations, in order to protect and promote its national interest in the international community.

(b) Main objectives of Nigerian foreign policy

1. Protection of national interest, sovereignty and territorial integrity of Nigeria.
2. Africa as the centrepiece of foreign policy: Commitment to the liberation, unity and development of the African continent.
3. Promotion of world peace and international cooperation through bodies such as the United Nations, the African Union and ECOWAS.
4. Non-alignment: Refusal to align permanently with any power bloc, while maintaining friendly relations with all nations.
5. Respect for the sovereign equality of all states and non-interference in their internal affairs.
6. Promotion of economic and technical cooperation to attract investment and trade for national development.
7. Peaceful settlement of international disputes.
8. Protection and welfare of Nigerian citizens abroad.

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The Rule of Law, as expounded by A. V. Dicey, means the supremacy of the law, equality before the law, and the guarantee of the fundamental rights and liberties of the citizen. A government violates this principle in the following ways:

1. Detention of persons without trial: When the government arrests and detains citizens indefinitely without charging them before a court of law, it breaches the principle that no one should be punished except for a proven breach of the law.
2. Making of retroactive (ex post facto) laws: When the government enacts laws that punish acts which were not offences at the time they were committed, it violates the fair operation of the law.
3. Denial of fair hearing: When persons are tried and condemned without being given the opportunity to defend themselves, or are made judges in their own cause, the rule of law is undermined.
4. Discrimination and inequality before the law: When the government treats some citizens as being above the law (for example, granting immunity to officials for crimes) or applies the law unequally on the basis of tribe, religion or status, it violates equality before the law.
5. Suppression of fundamental human rights: When the government muzzles the press, bans free speech, association and movement, and represses opposition, it denies the liberties the rule of law protects.
6. Interference with the independence of the judiciary: When the executive dictates to the courts, removes judges arbitrarily, or refuses to obey court orders and judgments, the rule of law is destroyed.
7. Rule by arbitrary decrees and use of force: When government acts by naked force, ouster clauses and arbitrary decrees rather than by due process, it sets itself above the law.
8. Confiscation of property without due process: When the government seizes citizens' property without lawful authority or compensation, it breaches the rule of law.