(a) Explain concurrent functions in a federation. (b) Outline five features of a confederal system of government.

(a) Concurrent functions in a federation

Concurrent functions are the powers and responsibilities listed on the concurrent legislative list, over which both the central (federal) government and the component (state or regional) governments are empowered to legislate and act. Both levels of government share responsibility in these areas, but where a state law conflicts with a federal law on the same matter, the federal law prevails and the state law becomes void to the extent of the inconsistency (the doctrine of covering the field). Common examples include education, health, agriculture, roads and industrial development.

(b) Five features of a confederal system of government

1. Weak central government: The central authority is deliberately weak and derives its powers from the component states, which remain sovereign.
2. Component units retain sovereignty: Each member state keeps its independence and can withdraw from the union at will (right of secession).
3. Right of nullification: A member state can reject or refuse to implement a decision or law of the central body that it considers against its interest.
4. Central government has no direct power over citizens: It relates to the citizens only through the component states, not directly.
5. Loose association: The union is a loose alliance held together mainly for limited common purposes such as defence and foreign affairs.
6. Financial dependence of the centre: The central government depends on contributions from the member states for its revenue rather than taxing citizens directly.