The following excerpt appeared in an academic journal on environmental science: 'Agriculture accounts for approximately 70% of global freshwater withdrawals...

(a) One cause and one consequence of water scarcity for agriculture [2]

Cause [1]: Agriculture accounts for approximately 70% of global freshwater withdrawals, placing enormous demand on available water supplies. This disproportionate consumption is a major driver of water scarcity in many regions.

Consequence [1]: In water-scarce regions such as the Middle East and North Africa, limited water availability is already restricting how much food can be grown, directly threatening food security for populations that depend on local agriculture.

(b) Two reasons why drip irrigation has not been widely adopted [4]

Any two of the following, each worth [2] (identification + explanation):

1. High installation costs: Drip irrigation systems require significant upfront investment in pipes, emitters, filters, and pressure regulators. Many smallholder farmers in the most water-stressed regions operate at subsistence level and simply cannot afford this equipment, even if it would save money in the long term.
2. Lack of technical knowledge: Farmers may not know how to install, operate, or maintain drip systems. The technology requires understanding of water pressure, filter cleaning schedules, and crop-specific emitter placement. Without training, farmers cannot use the systems effectively.
3. Limited access to credit: Even when farmers understand the benefits, they cannot borrow the money needed for the initial investment. Banks and microfinance institutions in many developing regions do not offer agricultural technology loans, or require collateral that smallholders cannot provide.
4. Resistance to changing established methods: Farmers in some regions may be unfamiliar with the technology or sceptical about abandoning flood irrigation methods that have been practised for generations, particularly when the promised benefits are uncertain.

(c) Two ways governments or international organisations could help overcome these barriers [4]

Any two of the following, each worth [2]:

1. Subsidies or grants: Provide financial support that reduces the cost of drip irrigation equipment for smallholder farmers, removing the primary economic barrier. Targeted subsidies ensure that the most water-stressed regions benefit first.
2. Agricultural extension services: Fund training programmes that teach farmers how to install and use modern irrigation techniques, providing ongoing technical support. Extension officers visiting farms can demonstrate the technology in practice and build confidence.
3. Microfinance or low-interest loan schemes: Establish credit facilities specifically designed for agricultural technology investment, with repayment terms that reflect agricultural income cycles (e.g. repayment after harvest).
4. Demonstration farms: Create local showcase sites where communities can see drip irrigation working on familiar crops and soil types, and learn from peers who have successfully adopted the technology. Peer learning is often more persuasive than external instruction.

(d) One argument supporting the view that technology alone cannot solve the water crisis [2]

Even with efficient irrigation technology, if the total supply of freshwater continues to decline due to climate change, over-extraction of groundwater, and population growth, technology can only slow the rate of depletion rather than prevent it [1]. Addressing the water crisis also requires changes in consumption patterns, better governance of shared water resources, and international cooperation on transboundary rivers and aquifers. These are political and social challenges that no technology can resolve on its own [1].