WAEC SSCE - Government - 1988 (Essay)

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Meaning. Proportional representation (PR) is an electoral system in which the number of seats a political party wins in the legislature is roughly equal to the proportion of the total votes it receives. If a party polls, for example, thirty per cent of the votes, it is allotted about thirty per cent of the seats. It is designed so that seats reflect popular support as closely as possible, and it is usually operated through multi-member constituencies using the party-list or single-transferable-vote methods.

Merits.

1. It ensures a fair and accurate reflection of the wishes of the electorate, since seats match votes.
2. It gives representation to minority parties and minority groups who would win nothing under the simple-majority system.
3. It reduces wasted votes, because almost every vote counts towards a seat.
4. It encourages the formation of many parties, widening the range of choice available to voters.
5. It promotes national unity and consensus by compelling parties to cooperate and form coalition governments.

Demerits.

1. It tends to produce weak and unstable coalition governments made up of several parties.
2. The method of allocating seats is complicated and difficult for ordinary voters to understand.
3. The close link between a representative and a particular constituency is weakened, especially under the party-list system.
4. Party leaders gain excessive power because they decide the order of candidates on the party list.
5. The multiplication of small parties can make governance unwieldy and encourage extremist groups to gain seats.

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Reasons for the introduction of Indirect Rule. Indirect Rule was the system by which the British governed their colonies through existing traditional rulers and institutions. It was popularised in Northern Nigeria by Lord Lugard. It was introduced for the following reasons.

1. Shortage of British personnel: There were too few British officials to administer so vast a territory directly, so existing rulers were used as intermediaries.
2. Financial economy: The colony was expected to pay for itself; ruling through traditional rulers who were already maintained by the people was far cheaper than a large European bureaucracy.
3. The language barrier: British officials did not understand the many local languages, so native authorities were needed to bridge communication with the people.
4. Existence of well-organised political systems in the North: The Hausa/Fulani emirates already had a centralised administration with emirs, an established tax system and Islamic courts, which the British found convenient to work through.
5. To preserve peace and reduce resistance: Ruling through familiar and respected authorities was less likely to provoke revolt than direct European control.

Reasons for its failure in some parts of the country. The system worked reasonably well in the North but failed, especially in the Eastern Region, for the following reasons.

1. Absence of centralised authority in Igboland: Igbo society was segmentary and republican, governed by councils of elders, age-grades and family heads, with no kings or chiefs of the emirate type through whom the British could rule.
2. Imposition of warrant chiefs: Since there were no natural rulers, the British appointed "warrant chiefs" who had no traditional legitimacy; they abused their powers and were resented by the people.
3. Popular resentment and resistance: Interference with the position of women and taxation fears provoked opposition, most notably the Aba Women's Riot (Women's War) of 1929.
4. Corruption and unpopularity of the warrant chiefs: Their bribery and oppression discredited the whole system in the East.
5. Effect of Western education in the South: The educated elite in the South rejected rule through illiterate and unaccountable chiefs and demanded genuine representation.

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The legislature is the arm of government responsible for making laws. In a modern state it performs the following functions.

1. Law-making: Its primary function is to enact new laws and to amend or repeal existing ones for the good governance of the state.
2. Control of public finance: It examines and approves the annual budget, authorises taxation and public expenditure, and no money may be spent by the executive without its approval.
3. Control over the executive: It checks and oversees the executive through questions, motions, debates, votes of no confidence and, in the presidential system, confirmation of appointments, thereby ensuring accountability.
4. Amendment of the constitution: It initiates and passes amendments to the constitution in accordance with the laid-down procedure.
5. Investigative or oversight function: Through its committees it conducts investigations into matters of public interest and supervises the activities of ministries and agencies.
6. Judicial functions: It may exercise quasi-judicial powers such as the impeachment and removal of the president or governor, and it can punish for contempt of the house.
7. Representative function: Members represent their constituents, articulate their grievances and interests, and keep them informed of government policy.
8. Electoral and confirmation functions: In some systems it ratifies treaties, confirms senior appointments, and may participate in electing or approving certain officers of state.
9. Educative and deliberative function: Through open debates it enlightens the public on national issues and serves as a forum for ventilating public opinion.

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Meaning of a state. A state is a politically organised body of people occupying a definite territory, possessing an organised government, and enjoying both internal and external sovereignty. It is the highest form of human political association, to which every other association within the territory is subordinate.

Characteristics (essential elements) of a state. For any body to qualify as a state, it must possess the following features.

1. Population: There must be a body of people living together permanently within the territory. Without people there can be no state, though there is no fixed size for the population.
2. Territory: A state must occupy a definite and recognised geographical area, including its land, inland waters, territorial waters and air space, with clearly marked boundaries.
3. Government: There must be an organised machinery of government (the executive, legislature and judiciary) through which the will of the state is formulated, expressed and enforced, and law and order maintained.
4. Sovereignty: The state must possess supreme power, both internal and external. Internally it is supreme over all persons and associations within its territory; externally it is free from the control of any other state.
5. Permanence: A state is a permanent and continuing institution. Although governments may change, the state itself continues in existence.

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(a) Major differences between the civil service and the public service.

In short, every civil servant is a public servant, but not every public servant is a civil servant.

(b) Main criticisms against the Nigerian civil service.

1. Corruption: Bribery, embezzlement and misappropriation of public funds are widespread.
2. Red-tapism and delay: Excessive bureaucratic procedures and "official channels" cause needless delay in getting things done.
3. Inefficiency and low productivity: Poor motivation, inadequate tools and idleness result in low output.
4. Nepotism and favouritism: Recruitment and promotion are often influenced by ethnic, political or family connections rather than merit.
5. Politicisation: Undue political interference undermines the neutrality and permanence of the service.
6. Poor attitude to work: Lateness, absenteeism and indifference to the public are common complaints.
7. Over-bloated size: The service is overstaffed, making the wage bill heavy and control difficult.

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The Organisation of African Unity (OAU) was founded in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, in May 1963. It was later transformed into the African Union in 2002.

Aims of the OAU.

1. To promote the unity and solidarity of African states.
2. To coordinate and intensify cooperation among African states in order to raise the standard of living of their peoples.
3. To defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of member states.
4. To eradicate all forms of colonialism and apartheid from the African continent.
5. To promote international cooperation with due regard to the Charter of the United Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
6. To settle disputes among member states peacefully through negotiation, mediation and arbitration.

Some achievements of the OAU.

1. Decolonisation and the fight against apartheid: Through its Liberation Committee it gave moral, material and diplomatic support to liberation movements, contributing to the independence of many African states and to the eventual fall of apartheid in South Africa.
2. Peaceful settlement of disputes: It mediated in several inter-state and boundary conflicts, such as the Algeria-Morocco and Somalia-Ethiopia border disputes.
3. Promotion of African unity and a common voice: It gave Africa a united platform to press its interests at the United Nations and other international bodies.
4. Economic and cultural cooperation: It encouraged the formation of regional economic groupings, such as ECOWAS, and the Lagos Plan of Action for economic development.
5. Refugee and humanitarian assistance: It helped to address the problems of refugees and displaced persons on the continent.
6. Preservation of colonial boundaries: It secured agreement to respect the boundaries inherited at independence, thereby averting many territorial wars.

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The Action Group crisis of 1962 was a serious internal split within the Action Group, the party then controlling the Western Region. It arose from a combination of the following factors.

1. Leadership rivalry between Awolowo and Akintola: The struggle for supremacy between Chief Obafemi Awolowo, the national leader of the party, and Chief S. L. Akintola, the Premier of the Western Region, was the immediate cause of the split.
2. Ideological differences: Awolowo favoured a radical, welfarist and democratic-socialist programme, while Akintola preferred a more conservative approach and cooperation with the ruling coalition at the centre.
3. Disagreement over relations with the federal government: Akintola wanted the Action Group to join or align with the NPC-led federal government to attract development to the West, whereas Awolowo insisted on remaining in vigorous opposition.
4. Struggle for control of party funds and machinery: Contest over the control of party finances and the party organisation deepened the mutual distrust between the two camps.
5. Personal ambition and ethnic or sectional loyalties within the West: Personal ambitions of leading members, reinforced by sectional loyalties, hardened the two factions.
6. Interference of the federal government: The NPC-controlled federal government exploited the quarrel to weaken its main opponent, and its declaration of a state of emergency in the West in May 1962 turned the party quarrel into a full-blown regional crisis.

The crisis led to disorder in the Western House of Assembly, the removal and reinstatement disputes over the premiership, the emergency administration, and eventually the treason-felony trial of Chief Awolowo.

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Meaning of Non-Alignment. Non-alignment is a foreign policy under which a state refuses to take permanent sides with any of the rival power blocs, especially the Western bloc led by the United States and the Eastern bloc led by the former Soviet Union during the Cold War. A non-aligned state remains neutral, judges each international issue on its own merit, and maintains friendly relations with all nations irrespective of their ideology. It was formalised at the Belgrade Conference of 1961, and Nigeria adopted it as a plank of her foreign policy at independence.

Advantages of the policy.

1. Preservation of sovereignty and independence: It enables a state to take decisions freely on the basis of its own national interest without being dictated to by any power bloc.
2. Freedom to relate with all nations: A non-aligned state can trade and cooperate with countries of both blocs and so obtain aid, technology and markets from the widest possible range of partners.
3. Promotion of world peace: By refusing to join military alliances and by mediating in disputes, non-aligned states help to reduce international tension and the risk of war.
4. Objective judgement of issues: Each international question is judged on its merit, allowing the state to support what is just rather than what a bloc dictates.
5. Strength in unity: By coming together in the Non-Aligned Movement, weak and developing nations gain a stronger collective voice in world affairs and in bodies such as the United Nations.
6. Avoidance of the cost of the arms race: Resources that would have been spent on bloc military commitments can be channelled into national development.

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The pre-colonial Hausa/Fulani and Igbo societies operated very different systems of administering justice, reflecting the difference between a centralised and a segmentary political system.

Points of similarity. In both societies the aim was to maintain peace and order, elders and experienced men played a part in adjudication, and both allowed some form of appeal, whether to the Emir in the North or to a wider assembly or oracle in Igboland.

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Definition. A republican form of government is one in which the head of state is not a hereditary monarch but an elected president who holds office for a fixed term. Supreme power resides in the people, who exercise it through their elected representatives, and public offices are filled by election or appointment rather than by birth. Nigeria became a republic in 1963.

Essential characteristics.

1. Elected head of state: The head of state is a president chosen directly or indirectly by the people, not a king or queen who inherits the throne.
2. Fixed tenure of office: The head of state and other elected officials hold office for a definite term, after which fresh elections are held.
3. Sovereignty of the people: Ultimate political authority belongs to the people, who confer power on their leaders through periodic elections.
4. Absence of hereditary rulership: Public offices are not inherited; leadership is based on election and merit rather than on royal descent.
5. Supremacy of the constitution and rule of law: Government is conducted according to a written constitution which is the supreme law, and all persons, including leaders, are subject to the law.
6. Accountability of leaders: Elected officials are answerable to the people and can be removed through elections or constitutional processes such as impeachment.