WAEC SSCE - Government - 2020

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The redresses mentioned in the question are legal remedies that can be sought at a court of law to address grievances or injustices. Injunction, mandamus, and certiorari are all valid redresses that can be sought at a court of law to address various grievances. Injunction is a court order that prohibits someone from doing something or requires them to do something. Mandamus is a court order that compels someone to do something that they are legally obligated to do. Certiorari is a court order that requires a lower court to deliver its record in a particular case so that the higher court can review the case. Prorogation, on the other hand, is not a legal remedy available at a court of law for aggrieved people. Prorogation refers to the suspension of a legislative session, which is a political decision and not a legal remedy. Therefore, the correct answer to the question is prorogation.

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Public opinion refers to the views, attitudes, and beliefs held by the majority of citizens in a country about a particular policy or issue. It represents the collective opinion of the people, and is usually measured through polls, surveys, and other research methods. Public opinion is important in democratic societies, as it helps shape policy decisions made by government officials and other leaders.

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The type of election which allows party members to elect candidates for elective offices is called a "primary election". In a primary election, voters who are registered members of a political party can choose among several candidates from their party who are seeking nomination for an elective office. The candidate with the most votes becomes the party's nominee and goes on to run in the general election. Primary elections are typically held before general elections to determine which candidates will represent the political parties.

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The formation of the African Union is aimed at achieving a wider goal of continental government. The African Union was formed in 2002 to replace the Organization of African Unity (OAU) with the objective of promoting political and economic integration among African countries, and ultimately, to establish a continental government. The African Union seeks to strengthen the unity and solidarity among African nations, as well as to promote peace, security, and stability on the continent. By working together, African nations can better address common challenges such as poverty, disease, conflict, and underdevelopment.

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A feature of a confederal state is that any unit can secede at will. A confederal state is a type of political organization in which the central government has limited powers and the constituent units, such as states or regions, have a high degree of autonomy and independence. In a confederal state, the central government is responsible for certain functions, such as foreign policy and defense, while the constituent units are responsible for other functions, such as taxation and administration. One of the key features of a confederal state is that any of the constituent units can secede from the central government at will. This means that the constituent units have the right to withdraw from the confederation if they so choose. This feature is in contrast to a federal state, in which the constituent units cannot secede and must remain part of the federal government. Confederal states are often used as a solution to complex political and cultural differences between constituent units. By giving the units a high degree of autonomy and independence, the central government can accommodate a wide range of interests and perspectives. However, the ability of any unit to secede at will can also lead to instability and conflict, as the constituent units may have different goals and priorities.

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The constitutional provision that gives a high degree of autonomy to component parts of a unitary state is devolution. Devolution is the transfer of powers from the central government to sub-national units, such as regions, states, or provinces. In a unitary state, where the central government holds most of the power, devolution provides a mechanism for sub-national units to have more control over certain policy areas and to make decisions that are closer to the people. Devolution is a way to accommodate the diverse needs and interests of different regions within a unitary state and to ensure that government is more responsive to local needs and circumstances. It provides a balance between the central government's ability to make decisions for the entire country and the ability of sub-national units to make decisions that are more relevant to their specific needs and interests. Devolution can be seen as a constitutional provision because it is a formal transfer of powers that is outlined in the constitution or a treaty. The degree of devolution can vary, with some unitary states having very limited devolution, while others have extensive devolution that gives sub-national units a high degree of autonomy.

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The reserved veto powers made the colonial government a "Virtual Dictator." The colonial governor had the power to veto any legislation passed by the Legislative Council, even if it had the support of the majority of members. This meant that the colonial governor could effectively control the entire legislative process and ensure that policies were implemented according to his wishes, without any real opposition or checks and balances. This system was used by many colonial powers to maintain control over their colonies and limit the power of local elected representatives.

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Political participation can take many forms, including belonging to a trade union or being a member of a pressure group. It can also involve canvassing for votes during an election or organizing festivals to celebrate a good harvest. Essentially, any activity that involves an individual or group of individuals engaging in the political process, expressing their opinions, and contributing to the decision-making process can be considered a form of political participation.

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The age of the leader does not influence a country's foreign policy. Foreign policy refers to a government's strategy in dealing with other nations and international organizations. A country's foreign policy is shaped by various factors, including national interests, security concerns, economic considerations, and cultural and historical ties. The desire for foreign investments can influence a country's foreign policy, as it may seek to attract investment from other countries to boost its economy. International law, conventions, and treaties also play a significant role in shaping a country's foreign policy, as they provide guidelines and rules for interactions between nations. Religion and racial factors can also influence a country's foreign policy, as they may impact cultural ties and relationships with other nations. However, the age of the leader is not a relevant factor in shaping a country's foreign policy. While a leader's personal views, experiences, and values may play a role in their approach to foreign policy, their age alone does not have a direct impact on a country's foreign policy decisions. Therefore, the correct answer is that the age of the leader does not influence a country's foreign policy.

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One reason for the failure of the assimilation policy in French West Africa was the refusal of the African to be culturally colonized. The assimilation policy was a policy implemented by the French colonial government in West Africa, which aimed to assimilate the African population into French culture and society. The policy was based on the idea that the African people were primitive and uncivilized, and that they could be elevated to the level of French citizens through exposure to French culture and education. However, this policy was met with resistance from the African population, who refused to be culturally colonized. They saw their own cultures and traditions as valuable and worth preserving, and they did not want to be forced to adopt French culture. This resistance was fueled by a growing sense of nationalism and a desire for independence, as well as a recognition of the cultural and political differences between the French and the African people. The refusal of the African to be culturally colonized was a major factor in the failure of the assimilation policy in French West Africa. The policy was seen as a threat to African identity and sovereignty, and it was ultimately rejected by the African people, who demanded the right to determine their own cultural and political future.

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The mode of operation of pressure group that undermines economics, social and political stability of the state is "strikes". A strike is a work stoppage caused by employees' refusal to work. When pressure groups embark on strikes, it disrupts the economic, social and political stability of the state. Strikes can lead to loss of income for both the employees and employers, and also affect the economy of the state. It can also lead to violence, destruction of property and loss of lives, which may affect the social and political stability of the state. Lobbying involves seeking to influence decisions made by government officials, symposia involve holding conferences to discuss issues of concern and debates involve exchanging arguments or opinions. While these modes of operation can also influence government policies and decisions, they do not necessarily undermine the economics, social and political stability of the state as strikes can.

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Egypt is a unitary country. In a unitary system, power is concentrated in the central government, and local authorities have only those powers delegated to them by the central government. In Egypt, the government exercises complete control over the administration of the country, and all provinces and localities are subject to the authority of the central government.

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The principle of separating the judiciary from the other organs of government and making it free from executive and legislative influence is called the separation of powers. The separation of powers is a fundamental principle of democratic governance, which divides the functions of government into three branches: the legislative branch, which makes the laws; the executive branch, which carries out the laws; and the judicial branch, which interprets the laws. The idea behind the separation of powers is to ensure that no single branch of government has too much power and that each branch can check and balance the power of the others. This helps to prevent the abuse of power and ensures that the government operates in a manner that is accountable, transparent, and responsive to the needs of the people. In this context, the judiciary is separated from the other organs of government and is made independent in order to ensure that it can make impartial and fair decisions without being influenced by the executive or legislative branches. This helps to ensure that the judiciary can serve as an impartial arbiter of justice and uphold the rule of law.

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The document which sets out the programme of a political party and guides the electorate to vote for it is the manifesto. A manifesto is a public declaration of a political party's principles, objectives, and policies. It outlines what the party intends to do if elected into office. The manifesto is an important document because it helps voters to make informed decisions about which party to vote for. It provides a clear indication of what a political party stands for and what it hopes to achieve if elected. The manifesto is often used as a basis for political debates and discussions during election campaigns.

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The correct answer is "chief of staff control" because it is not a recognized means of controlling public corporations. Legislative control involves the laws made by the legislative body, while judicial control refers to the legal oversight of the courts. Ministerial control is exercised by the relevant minister who oversees the activities of the public corporation. However, "chief of staff control" is not a recognized means of controlling public corporations.

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The institution under the executive arm of government responsible for formulating and implementing government policies is the civil service. The civil service is made up of individuals who are employed by the government to assist in the administration of the country. The civil service provides advice to the government, and is responsible for the implementation of government policies and programs. It is responsible for the management of the day-to-day affairs of the government, and works to ensure that the government is run efficiently and effectively.

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Authority refers to the legal right or permission to exercise power, while power is the ability to influence or control the behavior of others. In simple terms, authority is the right to use power, whereas power is the actual use of that right. The major difference between power and authority is that authority is acquired through legitimate means such as appointment or election. It is a socially approved right to exercise power over others. Authority is based on consent and respect, whereas power is often based on coercion and force. Authority is exercised within a legal framework, and individuals who hold authority are expected to act within the limits of the law. In contrast, power can be exercised without legal or ethical boundaries, and the use of power can sometimes be harmful or even abusive. Therefore, the correct answer is that authority is acquired popularly through legitimate means, not exercised through force or coercion.

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The capital of the French Federation of West Africa states was located in Dakar, Senegal. The French Federation of West Africa (AOF) was a political entity established by France in the 1890s and dissolved in 1960. It included several West African countries, and its capital was Dakar, which was the political, economic, and cultural center of the region. Dakar was chosen as the capital of the AOF because of its strategic location on the Atlantic coast and its proximity to other French colonies in West Africa.

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A confederal state is characterized by the distribution of power between the central government and independent units (states, provinces, etc.). Unlike a federal state, in a confederal state, each unit has greater autonomy, and they can secede from the central government at will. Therefore, the correct option from the given choices is "any unit can secede at will."

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The national secretariat of a political party is managed by the national chairman and general secretary. The national chairman is the highest ranking official in the party and is responsible for overseeing the activities of the party at the national level. The general secretary, on the other hand, is responsible for the day-to-day running of the party, including organizing meetings, managing finances, and maintaining the party's records. Together, they form the top management team of the party and are responsible for ensuring that the party functions effectively and achieves its objectives.

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Under the Crown Colony system of administration, major policies were implemented in the colonies by the Colonial Governor. The Crown Colony system was a form of colonial administration used by the British Empire from the late 19th century to the mid-20th century. Under this system, the British government directly controlled the administration of its colonies, usually through a governor who was appointed by the British monarch. The governor had wide-ranging powers and was responsible for implementing major policies in the colony, including economic, social, and political policies. The governor was supported by a team of officials, including a Colonial Secretary and other administrative staff. However, the governor was the ultimate decision-maker and had the power to veto any decision made by the colonial legislature or other colonial officials. Therefore, the correct answer is that under the Crown Colony system of administration, major policies were implemented in the colonies by the Colonial Governor.

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Campaigning for a candidate is not an electoral malpractice. Explanation: Campaigning for a candidate is a legitimate and essential part of the electoral process. It involves promoting a candidate's ideas, policies, and vision to voters in order to persuade them to vote for that candidate. Impersonation, threatening, and gerrymandering, on the other hand, are all examples of electoral malpractices. Impersonation involves someone pretending to be someone else in order to cast a vote, while threatening involves intimidating voters to influence their vote. Gerrymandering is the manipulation of electoral boundaries to create an unfair advantage for a particular political party or group. These actions are all considered to be illegal and undermine the integrity of the electoral process.

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Violent socio-political unrest usually leads to the curtailment of the rights of citizens. This is because during such periods, the government may impose restrictions on citizens' rights and freedoms in an effort to maintain order and security. For instance, the government may impose curfews, ban public gatherings, censor the media, and detain citizens without trial. These measures are often seen as necessary to restore order but can lead to the infringement of citizens' rights. The other options listed in the question, such as transitional period, granting of presidential pardon, and period of constitutional pardon, do not necessarily lead to the curtailment of citizens' rights.

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Foreign policy is a set of guidelines and actions that a country's government takes towards other countries and international organizations to achieve its national interest. Therefore, a major advantage of a country's foreign policy is that it promotes the country's national interest. Foreign policy enables countries to pursue their goals, such as trade, diplomacy, defense, and security, in the international community. Through foreign policy, a country can promote its economic, political, and cultural interests abroad and establish strategic relationships with other countries.

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The police reform does not include public execution of law breakers. The primary function of police reform is to improve the effectiveness, accountability, and professionalism of law enforcement agencies. This involves a wide range of initiatives and changes, including improving training and education, increasing transparency and accountability, and strengthening community relations. One of the key objectives of police reform is to ensure that the police are able to protect life and property, enforce the law, and maintain order in a fair and impartial manner. This involves improving the police's ability to respond to and investigate crime, as well as their ability to prevent crime and ensure public safety. However, public execution of law breakers is not a function of police reform. This practice is illegal in most countries and goes against the principles of human rights and the rule of law. The police are responsible for investigating and prosecuting law breakers, but they do not have the power to carry out public executions. Police reform is focused on improving the ability of law enforcement agencies to serve and protect the public, while upholding the principles of human rights and the rule of law. The objective is to create a more effective, accountable, and professional police force that is better equipped to prevent and respond to crime.

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An advantage of a two-party system is that it simplifies the electoral process. In a two-party system, voters have to choose between two major parties, which reduces the number of choices that they have to make. This simplification makes the electoral process easier for voters to understand, and reduces the likelihood of confusion or errors. Additionally, it can make it easier for parties to campaign, as they only have to focus on winning a majority of votes against one opponent rather than many.

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An opposition party that sees itself as "government-in-waiting" is called a shadow government. A shadow government is a group of opposition politicians who act as a "government-in-waiting," preparing themselves to take over the reins of government if and when they win an election. This group is often referred to as the "shadow cabinet" or "shadow ministers." The members of the shadow government are appointed by the opposition party leader and are responsible for scrutinizing and criticizing the policies and actions of the current government. They also develop alternative policies and proposals, which they believe would be more effective and efficient, and they are ready to implement them if they come to power. The shadow government serves as a mechanism for the opposition party to demonstrate its ability to govern and to provide a clear alternative to the current government. It also helps to ensure that the opposition party is prepared to take over the government if it wins an election, and it provides a level of accountability for the government.

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The limitation to the principles of the rule of law is immunity. Immunity refers to the legal protection granted to certain individuals or groups, which exempts them from legal liability or punishment for their actions. In some cases, high-ranking government officials, diplomats, or members of the armed forces may be granted immunity. This immunity can sometimes be in conflict with the rule of law, as it can lead to unequal treatment under the law and the possibility of abuse of power without any legal consequences. Therefore, while the rule of law promotes equality, impartiality, and liberty, immunity can limit the application of these principles.

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In modern democracy, a government is a contrast between the rulers and the ruled. Democracy is a form of government in which power is held by the people through free and fair elections. The people choose their representatives who then make decisions on their behalf. This means that the government is made up of elected officials who hold power temporarily, and are accountable to the people who voted for them. In this way, the government represents a contrast between the rulers (elected officials) and the ruled (the people who voted for them).

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The flexibility and rigidity of a constitution refer to the "ease of amending the constitution". A constitution is a set of fundamental principles and rules that govern a country or organization. The flexibility and rigidity of a constitution refer to how easy or difficult it is to make changes to the constitution. A flexible or "unwritten" constitution is one that can be easily amended or changed without much difficulty. A rigid or "written" constitution is one that is difficult to change and requires a special process or procedure to make amendments. The flexibility or rigidity of a constitution depends on the source and nature of the constitution, as well as the process for making amendments to it.

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The institution established by the constitution to be responsible for recruiting personnel into the civil service is the Public Service Commission. The Public Service Commission is an independent constitutional body established to ensure that the recruitment, promotion, and discipline of civil servants are done in a fair, transparent and merit-based manner. The commission is responsible for advertising vacant positions in the civil service, receiving applications, shortlisting candidates, conducting interviews, and making recommendations to the appropriate government agency for appointment. The commission also ensures that civil servants are promoted based on their qualifications and experience, and that they are disciplined fairly and justly if they violate the rules and regulations of the civil service.

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The observance of the rule of law in a state requires an independent judiciary. The rule of law is a principle that states that all individuals and institutions, including the government, are subject to and accountable under the law. It means that the law is supreme and that everyone, regardless of their status or power, must abide by it. For the rule of law to be upheld, it is essential that there is an independent judiciary, which means that the judicial system is free from interference and influence by other branches of government or outside forces. An independent judiciary ensures that the law is applied fairly and impartially, and that individuals and institutions are held accountable for their actions. Having an independent judiciary is crucial for the protection of individual rights and freedoms, as well as for promoting stability, predictability, and fairness in a society. It is an important component of a functioning democracy and helps to ensure that the rule of law is respected and upheld.

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Monocephalous executive refers to a system of government where there is only one head of the executive branch. One advantage of this system is quick decision-making. This is because the head of the executive branch has the power to make decisions without having to consult or seek approval from other branches of government, leading to quicker implementation of policies and projects. On the other hand, in a system where power is shared among multiple individuals or groups, decision-making can be slower and more complicated due to the need for consensus-building and compromise.

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Pressure groups are organizations that seek to influence government policy or legislation without aiming to take control of the government. One of the features of pressure groups is that all members have similar interests. Members of a pressure group come together because they share a common goal or objective, and they work together to achieve that goal through various means, such as lobbying, protests, or public campaigns. While members may have different backgrounds and opinions, they share a common interest in the issue or cause that the pressure group represents.

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The major functions of a government are to make and enforce laws and administer justice. Governments are established to exercise control and authority over a particular territory or people. They are responsible for ensuring that laws are made and enforced to promote peace, security, and social welfare. Governments also have the power to administer justice through the judicial system, which includes the courts and other legal institutions. This involves interpreting and enforcing the law, punishing those who violate it, and settling disputes between citizens. Therefore, the correct option is government.

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A non-partisan organization with the aim of influencing government policies is a pressure group. A pressure group is an organization that seeks to influence government policies and decisions, without being politically partisan. These groups bring together individuals and organizations with similar interests and goals, and they use various tactics, such as lobbying, advocacy, and public education, to influence government policies. Pressure groups can focus on a wide range of issues, from environmental protection to human rights, and they play an important role in democratic societies by giving a voice to groups and individuals who may not be well-represented in the political process. In contrast, political parties are partisan organizations that compete in elections and seek to win political power. Humanitarian and relief organizations, on the other hand, focus on providing aid and assistance to those in need, rather than influencing government policies.

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A military coup d'etat is an illegal seizure of power by a group of military personnel from the government in power. Therefore, it is usually followed by the suspension of the constitution, as the military group takes control of the government. The military coup usually involves the use of force, and sometimes violence, to overthrow the government in power. In some cases, the military group might break diplomatic relations with foreign countries, but this is not always the case. Therefore, the correct option is the suspension of the constitution.

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(a) Three features of the Igbo Political system are:

1. Decentralization: The Igbo political system is characterized by a decentralized power structure, with authority and decision-making power held at the local or community level rather than by a centralized governing body.
2. Consensus-building: Decision-making in the Igbo political system is often based on consensus-building, with leaders working to reach agreement through discussion and negotiation rather than through the exercise of unilateral authority.
3. Egalitarianism: The Igbo political system is based on principles of egalitarianism, with a focus on equal representation and participation in decision-making regardless of social status or rank.

(b) Four democratic tenets of the Igbo Traditional Political system are:

1. Popular participation: The Igbo political system places a strong emphasis on popular participation, with all members of the community having a say in decision-making processes and the ability to influence political outcomes.
2. Accountability: The Igbo political system places a high value on accountability, with leaders expected to be transparent about their actions and decisions and subject to scrutiny and criticism from the community.
3. Rule of law: The Igbo political system is guided by principles of the rule of law, with laws and regulations enforced impartially and equally for all members of the community.
4. Protection of minority rights: The Igbo political system is characterized by a strong commitment to protecting the rights of minority groups, with mechanisms in place to ensure that their voices are heard and their interests are taken into account in decision-making processes.

Overall, the Igbo Traditional Political system is characterized by a strong commitment to democratic values, with an emphasis on popular participation, accountability, the rule of law, and the protection of minority rights. These tenets have helped to ensure that the Igbo political system remains inclusive, representative, and responsive to the needs and concerns of all members of the community.

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The main differences between Crown colonies and Protectorates are as follows:

1. Political Status: Crown colonies were directly ruled by the British government, whereas Protectorates were indirectly ruled through local rulers and leaders who had some degree of autonomy.
2. Governance: In Crown colonies, British officials held all key positions in government and made decisions without consulting the local population. In Protectorates, local leaders had some power to make decisions and had a degree of autonomy.
3. Economic Development: Crown colonies were typically more developed economically, with a focus on cash crops and commercial activities, while Protectorates tended to be more rural and traditional.
4. Legal System: In Crown colonies, British law was applied, while Protectorates often had their own legal systems, which were sometimes based on traditional customs and practices.
5. Military Presence: Crown colonies had a larger British military presence, while Protectorates often relied on local forces for defense.

Overall, Crown colonies were more closely controlled by the British government, while Protectorates had a greater degree of local autonomy. This meant that Crown colonies tended to be more developed economically and politically, while Protectorates were more traditional and less developed.

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a) Three political parties and their leaders who contested during the 1979 presidential elections in Nigeria are:

• National Party of Nigeria (NPN) - Shehu Shagari
• Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN) - Obafemi Awolowo
• Nigerian People's Party (NPP) - Nnamdi Azikiwe

b) Features of political parties in Nigeria since independence:

1. Ethnic and regional affiliations: Political parties in Nigeria tend to be based on ethnic and regional affiliations, which can make it difficult for them to appeal to a broad national audience.
2. Ideological fluidity: Political parties in Nigeria have tended to lack clear and consistent ideologies, with many parties adopting platforms that are more focused on personality and patronage than on a specific political philosophy.
3. Factionalism and instability: Political parties in Nigeria have often been characterized by internal factionalism and instability, with frequent defections and party mergers and splits.
4. Weak institutional structures: Political parties in Nigeria have often had weak institutional structures, with limited capacity for mobilizing voters and fundraising.
5. Limited inclusivity: Political parties in Nigeria have often been criticized for being exclusive, with limited opportunities for women, youth, and minority groups to participate in party politics.
6. Dominance of the ruling party: Since independence, Nigeria has tended to have one dominant political party at any given time, with other parties struggling to gain a foothold in national politics.
7. Role of money and patronage: Political parties in Nigeria have often relied heavily on money and patronage to secure votes and maintain their power, rather than on building strong grassroots support.

Overall, the features of political parties in Nigeria since independence have been shaped by a range of factors, including ethnic and regional divisions, weak institutional structures, and a focus on patronage and personality over ideology. These factors have contributed to a political landscape that is often fragmented and unstable, with limited opportunities for meaningful political engagement and representation for all Nigerians.

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The 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria has several weaknesses that have been identified over the years, including:

1. Centralization of powers: The constitution centralizes powers in the federal government, making it difficult for states and local governments to effectively address their unique challenges and needs.
2. Lack of clear separation of powers: The constitution does not clearly separate the powers of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government, leading to overlapping responsibilities and confusion about who is responsible for what.
3. Inadequate representation: The constitution does not adequately represent the diverse ethnic and regional groups in Nigeria, leading to a feeling of marginalization among some groups.
4. Weaknesses in the electoral system: The electoral system in Nigeria has been criticized for its lack of transparency, fairness, and accountability, which can undermine the legitimacy of the government.
5. Inflexibility: The constitution is considered inflexible, as it is difficult to make changes to the document without a lengthy and complex amendment process. This can make it difficult for the government to respond quickly to changing circumstances and address emerging challenges.

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(a) Political socialization refers to the process by which individuals develop their political beliefs, attitudes, and values through interactions with their family, peers, schools, media, and other social institutions. This process starts in childhood and continues throughout the lifespan. Political socialization shapes our political identity and influences our behavior as citizens, including our political participation, voting behavior, and political attitudes.

(b) The four features of a nation are as follows:

1. Territory: A nation is defined by a geographic area with clear boundaries, which is recognized by other nations.
2. Population: A nation is composed of a group of people who share common characteristics, such as language, culture, religion, or history.
3. Government: A nation has a system of governance that exercises authority and control over the population and territory, which is recognized by other nations.
4. Sovereignty: A nation has the ultimate power and authority over its population and territory, which is recognized by other nations.

These four features are interrelated and define the essence of a nation. They provide a sense of belonging, identity, and purpose for the people who make up the nation. The territory provides a physical space for the nation to exist, while the population gives it a social and cultural identity. The government exercises control and authority over the population and territory, while sovereignty provides the ultimate power and autonomy to the nation. Together, these features help to create a sense of unity and common purpose among the members of a nation.

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(a) A Public Corporation is a type of legal entity that is established by a government to carry out public functions or services, usually in areas such as transportation, utilities, or other public infrastructure. These corporations are owned and controlled by the government and operate under a set of rules and regulations that are set by the government.

(b) Public corporations are controlled in several ways, including:

1. Government Oversight: Public corporations are subject to oversight by government agencies or regulatory bodies. These agencies monitor the corporation's activities to ensure that they are acting in the public interest and complying with relevant laws and regulations.
2. Board of Directors: Public corporations have a board of directors that is appointed by the government. The board is responsible for overseeing the corporation's management, setting policies and strategies, and making major decisions.
3. Annual Reports and Audits: Public corporations are required to prepare annual reports that provide information about their financial performance and operations. These reports are audited by independent auditors to ensure that they are accurate and comply with relevant accounting standards.
4. Shareholder Meetings: Public corporations may have shareholders who own shares in the corporation. Shareholders have the right to attend annual meetings and vote on major decisions, such as the election of directors or the approval of major transactions. However, in the case of public corporations, the government usually holds the majority of the shares and therefore has the controlling interest.

Overall, public corporations are subject to a range of controls and regulations that are designed to ensure that they operate in the public interest and provide services or functions that are essential for society.

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Federalism is a political system in which power is divided between a central government and regional governments or states. The five features of federalism are:

1. Dual government: Federalism is characterized by a dual government system, where the central government and state governments have separate spheres of authority and share power over the same territory and population. Each level of government has its own responsibilities, but they also work together on common issues.

2. Written Constitution: Federalism is based on a written constitution that defines the powers of the central government and state governments, and outlines the relationship between them. The constitution also protects the rights of individuals and limits the powers of the government.

3. Independent Judiciary: Federalism requires an independent judiciary that interprets and enforces the constitution, resolves disputes between the central government and state governments, and protects the rights of individuals against abuses of power by the government.

4. Division of Powers: Federalism involves a division of powers between the central government and state governments. The central government has specific powers, such as foreign affairs, defense, and interstate commerce, while state governments have powers over matters such as education, health care, and transportation.

5. Shared Power: Federalism also involves shared powers between the central government and state governments. Some powers are shared by both levels of government, such as taxation and law enforcement. This sharing of powers creates a system of checks and balances that helps prevent abuses of power and ensures that decisions are made in the best interests of the people.

These features of federalism ensure that power is distributed between the central government and state governments, and that both levels of government have specific responsibilities and powers. The division of powers and sharing of powers creates a balance of power that protects the rights of individuals and ensures that decisions are made in the best interests of the people.

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Public opinion can be measured in several ways, including:

1. Surveys: Surveys are one of the most common ways of measuring public opinion. Surveys can be conducted by phone, email, or in person, and they typically ask a sample of people about their opinions on various issues.
2. Focus groups: Focus groups are small, facilitated discussions that are used to gather opinions and attitudes on a particular issue. Participants are chosen to represent a cross-section of the population and are asked to discuss their opinions in a group setting.
3. Social media: Social media platforms like Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram can be used to gauge public opinion by analyzing the content and sentiment of posts and comments.
4. Online polls: Online polls are a quick and easy way to gather opinions from a large number of people. Polls can be conducted on websites, social media platforms, or through email.
5. News media: News media, such as television news programs, newspapers, and magazines, can provide insight into public opinion by reporting on the views and opinions expressed by individuals and organizations in the public sphere.

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The United Nations Organizations (UNO) faces several challenges in carrying out its mission of promoting peace, security, and development globally. Some of these challenges include:

1. Funding: The UN relies on its member states to provide funding for its operations, and securing adequate funding can be a challenge, especially in times of economic hardship.
2. Political divisions: The UN operates in a highly politicized environment, and member states often have different interests and priorities. This can make it difficult for the UN to take effective action on global issues and achieve consensus on important decisions.
3. Inadequate enforcement powers: The UN has limited enforcement powers, and its decisions are often not binding on its member states. This can make it difficult for the UN to enforce its resolutions and ensure that its decisions are implemented.
4. Bureaucracy: The UN is a large and complex organization, and its bureaucracy can sometimes make it slow and inefficient in responding to global challenges.
5. Lack of resources: The UN often lacks the resources it needs to carry out its mandate effectively, particularly in conflict-affected and underdeveloped countries. This can limit the UN's ability to respond to humanitarian emergencies, promote development, and maintain peace and security.

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There are several means of safeguarding the rights of citizens, including:

1. Constitutional Protections: A constitution provides citizens with a set of fundamental rights that are protected by law. These rights cannot be taken away by the government, and any law or action that violates these rights can be challenged in court.

2. Independent Judiciary: An independent judiciary is essential for protecting citizens' rights. The judiciary is responsible for interpreting the law and ensuring that the government and other institutions do not violate citizens' rights. Judges are appointed for life or for a set term, which helps to insulate them from political pressure.

3. Free Press: A free press is an important safeguard against abuses of power by the government. The media plays a critical role in investigating and exposing corruption, abuse of power, and other violations of citizens' rights. A free press also helps to ensure that citizens are informed about important issues and can make informed decisions.

4. Civil Society Organizations: Civil society organizations, such as human rights groups and advocacy organizations, play an important role in safeguarding citizens' rights. These organizations monitor government activities, advocate for policy changes, and provide support and assistance to individuals who have had their rights violated.

5. Democratic Institutions: Democratic institutions, such as elections, political parties, and civil service organizations, are important safeguards for citizens' rights. Free and fair elections allow citizens to choose their leaders and hold them accountable for their actions. Political parties provide a forum for debate and help to ensure that different viewpoints are represented. Civil service organizations ensure that the government is run efficiently and in the public interest.

Overall, safeguarding citizens' rights requires a combination of legal protections, independent institutions, and active participation by citizens themselves. It is an ongoing process that requires constant vigilance and engagement by all members of society.