The changing role of international organisations: the League and the UN, 1919-c2011, is a Breadth Study that traces the ambitious attempt to prevent war through collective security, from the idealism of the League of Nations to the complex realities facing the United Nations in the twenty-first century.
This topic sits within Paper 2 of the Pearson Edexcel IGCSE History specification (4HI1) as a Breadth Study in Change. Paper 2 carries 60 marks and lasts 90 minutes. Breadth Studies demand that you trace patterns of change and continuity across a long period, identify turning points, and assess the relative significance of different factors. This topic rewards systematic, analytical thinking.
These edexcel igcse history revision notes cover each of the five specification areas, providing the factual detail and logical structure needed for confident exam performance.
The creation and successes of the League, 1919-29
The League of Nations emerged from the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, driven above all by the vision of US President Woodrow Wilson. Wilson's Fourteen Points had called for "a general association of nations" to guarantee political independence and territorial integrity. The Covenant of the League, incorporated into the Treaty of Versailles, established the new organisation with its headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland.
The League's structure comprised four main bodies:
| Body | Function |
|---|---|
| Assembly | Met annually; every member nation had one vote; discussed general policy |
| Council | Met more frequently; permanent members (Britain, France, Italy, Japan) plus rotating non-permanent members; handled disputes and crises |
| Secretariat | The civil service of the League; administered its day-to-day work |
| Permanent Court of International Justice | Settled legal disputes between nations |
The League's most significant weakness from the start was the absence of the United States. The US Senate refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles, largely because of opposition to Article 10 of the Covenant, which appeared to commit the US to defending the territorial integrity of other member states. Without the world's most powerful economy and military, the League lacked the means to enforce its decisions.
Despite this limitation, the League achieved genuine successes in the 1920s. The Aaland Islands dispute (1921) between Finland and Sweden was resolved peacefully when the League ruled in Finland's favour and Sweden accepted the decision. The Upper Silesia dispute (1921) saw the League oversee a plebiscite and divide the contested territory between Germany and Poland. The Greek-Bulgarian crisis (1925) was resolved when Greece invaded Bulgaria and the League ordered a withdrawal, which Greece obeyed.
The League's specialist agencies achieved lasting humanitarian work. The International Labour Organisation (ILO) campaigned for improved working conditions. The Health Organisation combated malaria and leprosy. The Refugee Commission, led by Fridtjof Nansen, helped resettle hundreds of thousands of refugees displaced by the First World War and the Russian Civil War.
The League challenged, 1930-39
The 1930s exposed the League's fundamental inability to restrain great powers determined to use force. The Manchurian Crisis (1931-33) was the first major test. Japan invaded the Chinese province of Manchuria, renamed it Manchukuo and installed a puppet government. China appealed to the League, which sent the Lytton Commission to investigate. The Commission condemned Japan's aggression, but Japan simply withdrew from the League in 1933. The League had no mechanism to force Japan to comply.
The Abyssinian Crisis (1935-36) was even more damaging. Italy, under Mussolini, invaded Abyssinia (modern Ethiopia) in October 1935. The League imposed economic sanctions, but they excluded oil, coal and steel, the resources Italy needed most. Britain and France, the League's strongest members, were reluctant to antagonise Mussolini for fear of driving him closer to Hitler. The Hoare-Laval Pact, a secret plan to partition Abyssinia, was leaked to the press and caused outrage. Abyssinia was conquered, and the League's credibility was destroyed.
The failures in Manchuria and Abyssinia shared common features: the aggressor was a great power, the League lacked military force of its own, and the key members (Britain and France) prioritised their national interests over collective security. Hitler drew the obvious conclusion: the League would not stop him.
Setting up the United Nations Organisation and its work to 1964
The United Nations was established in 1945 with the aim of avoiding the League's failures. The UN Charter, signed in San Francisco, reflected lessons learned. Membership was broader (51 founding members, growing to nearly 200). The Security Council had five permanent members (the USA, USSR, Britain, France and China) with the power to veto resolutions, ensuring that the great powers remained engaged rather than walking away. The General Assembly gave every member nation a voice, though its resolutions were recommendations rather than binding decisions.
The UN's specialised agencies continued and expanded the humanitarian work of the League. The ILO carried on from the League era. The World Health Organisation (WHO) coordinated international health campaigns. The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) addressed hunger and rural poverty. UNESCO promoted education and cultural cooperation. UNICEF focused on children's welfare.
The UN played a direct role in several major crises during this period:
- Palestine (1947-48): The UN General Assembly voted for the partition of Palestine into Jewish and Arab states. The State of Israel was proclaimed in May 1948, followed immediately by the First Arab-Israeli War. The UN appointed Count Folke Bernadotte as mediator (he was assassinated in September 1948) and established a ceasefire. The Palestinian refugee problem, with over 700,000 displaced, remained unresolved.
- Korea (1950-53): When North Korea invaded South Korea in June 1950, the Security Council authorised military action because the Soviet Union was boycotting the Council and could not exercise its veto. A UN force, predominantly American, fought alongside South Korean troops. The war ended in stalemate along the 38th parallel.
- Congo (1960-64): The UN deployed peacekeeping forces (ONUC) to the newly independent Congo to prevent civil war and foreign intervention. Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjold was killed in a plane crash in September 1961 while travelling to negotiate a ceasefire. The mission was costly and controversial but prevented the complete collapse of the Congolese state.
The UN challenged, 1967-89
The Cold War severely constrained the UN's effectiveness. The veto power of the Permanent Five (P5) meant that any resolution opposed by either the USA or the USSR could be blocked. During this period, the Security Council was frequently paralysed on the most pressing international crises.
The Six-Day War (1967) saw Israel capture the Sinai Peninsula, the Gaza Strip, the West Bank, East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights. Security Council Resolution 242 called for Israeli withdrawal from occupied territories and recognition of every state's right to exist within secure boundaries. It became the foundation of Middle Eastern diplomacy but was never fully implemented. Resolution 338, passed during the Yom Kippur War (1973), reinforced 242 and called for negotiations.
The UN's involvement in Lebanon through UNIFIL (from 1978) illustrated the limitations of peacekeeping in an active conflict zone. Peacekeepers could observe and report but lacked the mandate or the firepower to stop fighting between Israeli forces, Palestinian groups and Lebanese factions.
In Namibia, the UN played a more constructive role. Resolution 435 (1978) laid out a plan for Namibian independence from South African control. After years of diplomatic pressure and Cold War negotiations, Namibia became independent in 1990 under UN-supervised elections.
Throughout this period, the specialised agencies continued their work. The WHO's campaign to eradicate smallpox, declared successful in 1980, was one of the greatest achievements in the history of public health.
The UN at bay, 1990-2011
The end of the Cold War raised hopes that the UN would finally be able to function as its founders intended. The first Gulf War (1990-91) seemed to vindicate those hopes: the Security Council authorised a US-led coalition to expel Iraqi forces from Kuwait. For the first time since Korea, the UN sanctioned large-scale military action against an aggressor.
The 1990s, however, brought a series of "identity wars" (conflicts driven by ethnic, religious or clan-based divisions) that tested the UN's capacity:
- Somalia (1992-93): The UN authorised a humanitarian intervention to address famine caused by civil war. The mission escalated into urban combat, most notably the Battle of Mogadishu ("Black Hawk Down") in October 1993. The US withdrew its forces, and the experience made Western nations reluctant to intervene in future crises.
- Bosnia (1992-95): The UN deployed peacekeepers (UNPROFOR) during the Bosnian War, but their mandate was limited to humanitarian protection. The massacre at Srebrenica in July 1995, in which Bosnian Serb forces killed over 8,000 Bosniak men and boys in a UN-designated "safe area," was a catastrophic failure. NATO airstrikes, not UN peacekeeping, ultimately brought the Bosnian Serbs to the negotiating table.
- Rwanda (1994): The UN had a small peacekeeping force (UNAMIR) in Rwanda when Hutu extremists launched a genocide against the Tutsi population. Despite warnings from the force commander, the Security Council reduced rather than reinforced the mission. An estimated 800,000 people were killed in approximately 100 days.
- Sudan (2003 onwards): The conflict in Darfur involved mass atrocities against civilian populations. The UN deployed a joint AU-UN peacekeeping force (UNAMID), but the mission was hampered by the Sudanese government's obstruction and insufficient resources.
The Second Gulf War (2003) divided the Security Council. The US and UK argued that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction and sought authorisation for military action. France and Russia threatened to veto. The US-led invasion proceeded without explicit Security Council approval, raising fundamental questions about the UN's authority and the principle of collective security.
Common mistakes and how to avoid them
- Treating the League and the UN as identical: They share the goal of collective security, but their structures differ significantly. The UN's veto system, broader membership and access to military forces through member states are all distinct from the League's arrangements. Your edexcel igcse history notes should make these contrasts clear.
- Ignoring the specialist agencies: The ILO, WHO, UNICEF and others have achieved more consistent success than the security machinery. The specification names them, and examiners expect you to discuss them.
- Blaming failures solely on the organisations themselves: The League failed in Manchuria and Abyssinia because its members (especially Britain and France) would not act. The UN failed in Rwanda and Bosnia because the Security Council would not authorise adequate responses. Organisations can only do what their members allow them to do.
- Forgetting the breadth study structure: This topic spans almost a century. The exam may ask you to compare the effectiveness of the League and the UN, or to identify the most significant obstacle to international peacekeeping. Practise answers that range across the full period.
Self-check questions
- Why was the League of Nations established, and what were its main structural features?
- Why did the League succeed in the 1920s but fail in the 1930s?
- How did the structure of the UN differ from that of the League, and why?
- Assess the UN's role in one conflict between 1945 and 1964.
- Why was the UN unable to prevent genocide in Rwanda or massacre in Srebrenica?
- How far has the UN been more effective than the League of Nations?
If you can answer these with specific factual evidence and a clear analytical thread, you are well prepared for the the changing role of international organisations: the league and the un, 1919-c2011 edexcel igcse section of your exam. For additional igcse 4hi1 the changing role of international organisations: the league and the un, 1919-c2011 material, the Green Bridge CBT platform provides edexcel igcse history revision notes and practice questions designed for timed exam conditions. The ability to compare, contrast and evaluate across a long chronological span is the core skill this Breadth Study tests, and that skill improves with every practice answer you write.
Edexcel IGCSE History revision notes on international organisations, 1919-c2011: the League of Nations, the UN, peacekeeping and identity wars.
Comment(s)