WAEC SSCE - Government - 2006 (Essay)

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Delegated (or subsidiary) legislation refers to laws made by persons or bodies other than the legislature, acting under powers conferred on them by an enabling Act of the legislature.

(a) Three types of delegated legislation

1. Orders in Council: Rules made by the executive (the President or Governor in Council) under powers granted by the legislature, often used in emergencies.
2. Ministerial orders, rules and regulations: Detailed rules made by ministers or heads of ministries to give effect to the provisions of an Act within their area of responsibility.
3. Bye-laws: Local laws made by local government councils or statutory corporations to regulate matters within their areas of authority.

(Other examples include provisional orders and rules of court made by the judiciary.)

(b) Three reasons for the control of delegated legislation

1. To prevent abuse of power: Control ensures that the bodies exercising delegated powers do not exceed or misuse the authority granted to them.
2. To keep it within the limits of the enabling Act: Control ensures that the subsidiary law does not go beyond (is not ultra vires) the powers conferred by the parent Act.
3. To protect the rights and liberties of citizens: Control safeguards citizens against oppressive or unjust rules made without proper legislative scrutiny.
4. To maintain the supremacy of the legislature: Control ensures that ultimate law-making authority remains with the elected legislature.

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(a) Four reasons for the adoption of the Indirect Rule System

1. Shortage of British personnel: Britain did not have enough trained European administrators to govern the vast territory directly, so existing traditional rulers were used.
2. Financial economy: Governing through local chiefs who were already paid by their people was far cheaper than establishing a large, expensive European bureaucracy.
3. Existence of well-organised traditional institutions: Especially in Northern Nigeria, the emirs already had an established system of administration, taxation and justice that could be adapted for colonial purposes.
4. Problem of language and communication: Ruling through familiar local chiefs overcame the barriers of language and custom between the British and the local people, making acceptance easier.

(Other acceptable reasons: to avoid resistance and maintain peace, to preserve traditional institutions and customs, vast distance and poor transport making direct rule difficult.)

(b) Two achievements of the Indirect Rule System

1. It preserved traditional institutions: Native authorities, chieftaincy and customary courts were retained, keeping local culture and administration intact.
2. It provided cheap and relatively peaceful administration: Using local rulers kept the cost of government low and maintained law and order with minimal European staff.

(Other acceptable achievements: it developed native treasuries and local taxation, it trained some Nigerians in administration, it laid a foundation for local government.)

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(a) Two methods used by nationalist leaders to oppose British rule in West Africa

1. Formation of political parties and movements: Nationalists organised parties (e.g. NCNC, Action Group, NPC, the NNDP) to mobilise the people and press constitutional demands for self-government.
2. Use of the press and public enlightenment: They established newspapers (such as the West African Pilot) and held rallies to criticise colonial rule, educate the masses and rouse nationalist feeling.

(Other acceptable methods: strikes, boycotts and demonstrations; petitions and delegations to Britain; participation in constitutional conferences; formation of trade unions and youth movements.)

(b) Four external factors that led to increased nationalist demands after the Second World War

1. Experience of ex-servicemen: West African soldiers who fought abroad saw that whites could be defeated and returned home with heightened political awareness and a demand for freedom.
2. The Atlantic Charter (1941): The declaration by Britain and the USA affirming the right of all peoples to choose their own government encouraged colonies to demand self-determination.
3. Formation of the United Nations: The UN Charter's emphasis on self-determination and decolonisation gave moral support to nationalist agitation.
4. The independence of India and other Asian countries: The granting of independence to India, Pakistan and others in the late 1940s inspired West Africans to demand the same.

(Other acceptable factors: influence of Pan-Africanism and the 1945 Manchester Congress; rise of the USA and USSR as anti-colonial super-powers; the weakened economic and military position of Britain after the war; activities of Africans educated abroad.)

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(a) Four organs of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)

1. The Authority of Heads of State and Government: the supreme organ that gives general direction and takes major decisions.
2. The Council of Ministers: which makes recommendations to the Authority and oversees the functioning of the community.
3. The Community Parliament: the representative/advisory assembly of the peoples of member states.
4. The Community Court of Justice: which interprets the treaty and settles disputes among member states.

(Other acceptable organs: the Executive Secretariat/Commission; the specialised technical commissions; the ECOWAS Bank for Investment and Development.)

(b) Four obstacles hindering the implementation of the aims and objectives of ECOWAS

1. Multiplicity of currencies: The existence of different national currencies of varying value hampers the free movement of goods, trade and a common market.
2. Colonial language and cultural differences: The division between anglophone, francophone and lusophone states creates barriers to cooperation and mutual trust.
3. Political instability: Frequent coups, civil wars and internal conflicts in member states disrupt cooperation and integration.
4. Loyalty of francophone states to France: The strong economic and political ties of French-speaking members to France divide their allegiance and weaken commitment to ECOWAS.

(Other acceptable obstacles: inadequate funding and failure of members to pay dues; poor transport and communication links; over-dependence of members on external powers; fear of Nigerian domination; smuggling and border problems.)

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(a) Three features of a Written Constitution

1. Documented in a single, formal document: The main principles and rules of government are deliberately gathered and written down in one authoritative document.
2. Rigid and difficult to amend: It usually provides a special, more difficult procedure for amendment (such as a two-thirds majority or referendum), so it cannot be changed easily.
3. Supremacy of the constitution: The written constitution is the supreme law of the land, and any law or action inconsistent with it is null and void.
4. Product of deliberate effort: It is normally drawn up at a particular point in time, often by a constituent assembly or conference, and comes into force on a specific date.
5. Guarantees fundamental human rights: It usually contains a clearly entrenched bill of fundamental rights.

(b) Three reasons for the adoption of a Unitary Constitution

1. Small size of the country: A country small in area and population can conveniently be governed from a single centre, making a unitary system suitable.
2. Homogeneous population: Where the people share a common language, culture and outlook, there is little need to divide power, so a unitary system fits.
3. Need for strong central government and unity: A unitary system concentrates power at the centre, giving strong, united and effective leadership and quick decision-making.
4. Economy of administration: It avoids the duplication of governmental structures found in federations and is therefore cheaper to run.

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(a) Four features of Nigerian Federalism

1. A written and rigid constitution: The powers of the federal and state governments are clearly spelt out in a supreme, written constitution that cannot be easily amended.
2. Division of powers: Powers are shared among the levels of government through the Exclusive Legislative List (federal), the Concurrent List (federal and state) and residual matters (states).
3. Existence of two or more tiers of government: There are the federal, state and local governments, each with its own defined functions and areas of authority.
4. Supremacy of the constitution: The constitution is the highest law of the land; any law inconsistent with it is null and void, and a Supreme Court interprets disputes between the tiers.

(Other acceptable features: a bicameral legislature at the centre; existence of federal and state institutions; revenue-sharing/fiscal arrangement; an independent judiciary as arbiter.)

(b) Two problems confronting Nigerian Federalism

1. Ethnicity and mutual distrust: Rivalry and suspicion among the many ethnic groups threaten national unity and complicate power-sharing.
2. Revenue allocation disputes: Persistent disagreement over the formula for sharing national revenue among the tiers and among states breeds tension.

(Other acceptable problems: over-concentration of power and resources at the centre; agitation for creation of more states; religious and regional differences; resource-control conflicts.)

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(a) Two objectives of the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC)

1. To achieve self-government and independence for Nigeria: The party sought the termination of British colonial rule and the attainment of political freedom.
2. To promote national unity: It aimed to weld the various peoples of Nigeria into one nation and to foster a spirit of common nationhood across ethnic and regional lines.

(Other acceptable objectives: to raise the political consciousness of the people, to protect the interests and welfare of Nigerians, to secure a truly national and democratic constitution.)

(b) Four achievements of the NCNC

1. It championed the independence struggle: Under leaders such as Herbert Macaulay and Nnamdi Azikiwe, it was in the forefront of the nationalist agitation that led to Nigeria's independence in 1960.
2. It raised national political consciousness: Through its newspapers and mass rallies it awakened political awareness and educated Nigerians on their rights.
3. It formed governments: The NCNC controlled the government of the Eastern Region and, at various times, participated in coalition governments at the centre, thereby gaining administrative experience for Nigerians.
4. It led the 1947 delegation to Britain: The party organised a delegation to London to protest against the Richards Constitution, demonstrating organised opposition to imposed constitutions.

(Other acceptable achievements: it broadened its membership across ethnic groups as a pan-Nigerian party; it produced prominent nationalist leaders; it contributed to constitutional advancement.)

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Methods used by pre-colonial chiefs (traditional rulers) to control their subjects

1. Use of religion and divine kingship: Chiefs were often regarded as sacred, semi-divine or the intermediary between the people and the gods and ancestors. This religious sanction made subjects obey out of reverence and fear of supernatural punishment.
2. Administration of justice: The chief and his council settled disputes, tried offenders and imposed sanctions such as fines, banishment or death. Control over justice kept subjects in order.
3. Use of a council of elders/chiefs: The ruler governed with a council of titled men and elders who represented the wards and clans, transmitting the chief's decisions to the people and securing their compliance.
4. Taxation and tribute: Chiefs demanded tributes, levies, gifts and labour from their subjects. The obligation to pay bound the people to the authority of the ruler.
5. Control of the army/warriors: Chiefs maintained warriors and age-grade militias used to defend the community, enforce decisions and punish rebellious subjects.
6. Use of age-grades and secret societies: Institutions such as age-grades, cults and masquerade (e.g. Ogboni, Ekpe) enforced laws, executed judgments and maintained social discipline on behalf of the ruler.

(Other acceptable points: reward system through titles and land grants, control of trade and markets, use of customs, taboos and oaths.)

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A political party is an organised group of people who share common political ideas and aims, and who come together to contest elections in order to win power and control the machinery of government.

(a) Three functions of a political party

1. Contesting elections and forming government: A party selects and sponsors candidates for elective offices and, when it wins, forms the government and runs the affairs of the state.
2. Political education and mobilisation: It educates and enlightens the citizens on political issues, mobilises them to participate in the political process, and shapes public opinion.
3. Serving as a link between the government and the people: It conveys the wishes, needs and grievances of the people to the government and explains government policies to the people.
4. Providing opposition and checking government: Parties out of power form the opposition, criticise and check the government, and offer alternative policies.

(b) Three problems of political parties

1. Inadequate finance: Many parties lack sufficient funds to organise, campaign and maintain their structures effectively.
2. Ethnicity and tribalism: Parties are often formed and supported along ethnic, religious or regional lines, which weakens national unity and internal cohesion.
3. Internal wrangling and indiscipline: Disagreements over leadership, nomination of candidates and sharing of positions cause factions, defections and instability.
4. Absence of clear ideology: Many parties lack a clear, consistent philosophy or programme, so members join and leave for selfish rather than principled reasons.

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(a) Three reasons for holding elections in a state

1. To choose representatives: Elections enable citizens to select the persons who will occupy public offices and exercise governmental power on their behalf, since direct democracy is impracticable in large modern states.
2. To confer legitimacy and consent: A government that emerges from a free election derives its authority from the will of the people. This popular mandate gives the leaders the moral and legal right to govern.
3. To ensure political accountability and change of government: Periodic elections allow the electorate to renew the mandate of good leaders and to peacefully remove poor performers, thereby holding office-holders answerable for their conduct.

(Other acceptable reasons: to give effect to popular participation, to reflect the wishes of the majority, to provide an orderly and peaceful means of transferring power.)

(b) Three factors that can disqualify a person from voting in a democracy

1. Age: A person below the constitutionally prescribed voting age (18 years in Nigeria) is not eligible to vote.
2. Unsound mind / insanity: A person certified to be of unsound mind lacks the capacity to make a rational electoral choice and is disqualified.
3. Non-registration: A citizen whose name does not appear on the voters' register cannot vote, since registration is a condition for exercising the franchise.

(Other acceptable factors: non-citizenship/alien status, conviction for a criminal offence or serving a prison term, failure to satisfy a residence qualification.)

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(a) Meaning of foreign policy

Foreign policy is the set of principles, objectives and strategies which a state adopts and pursues in its dealings and relations with other states and international organisations, in order to protect and promote its national interests in the international community.

(b) Three reasons for the adoption of Africa as the centre-piece of Nigeria's foreign policy

1. Geographical and historical ties: Nigeria is an African country sharing a common continent, history of colonialism and cultural affinity with other African states, making Africa the natural focus of its external relations.
2. To lead the struggle against colonialism and apartheid: Nigeria committed itself to the total liberation of Africa from colonial and racist rule, supporting liberation movements in countries such as Angola, Zimbabwe and South Africa.
3. To promote African unity and economic cooperation: By making Africa the centre-piece, Nigeria could foster continental solidarity through bodies like the OAU/AU and ECOWAS and pursue regional peace and development.

(Other acceptable reasons: to enhance Nigeria's leadership role and prestige in Africa; to promote economic integration and trade within the continent; to maintain peace and security in the West African sub-region.)

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(a) Government as an academic field of study

As an academic field of study, Government is a branch of the social sciences that deals with the systematic study of the state, its institutions, the principles and processes of governing, political power and authority, and the relationship between the state and its citizens as well as between states. It examines how societies are organised and controlled, how power is acquired, distributed and exercised, and the rights and duties of citizens.

(b) Three branches of Government

1. The Legislature: This is the law-making arm of government. It makes new laws, amends or repeals existing ones, approves the budget, and checks or controls the activities of the executive.
2. The Executive: This is the arm that implements and enforces the laws made by the legislature. It formulates and carries out government policies, maintains law and order, conducts foreign affairs and administers the day-to-day business of the state.
3. The Judiciary: This is the arm that interprets the laws and settles disputes. It presides over cases, punishes offenders, protects the rights of citizens and ensures that the laws are applied justly and that the constitution is upheld.