WAEC SSCE - Government - 2007 (Essay)

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(a) Government as an art of governing

Government as an art of governing refers to the actual process and practice of ruling or administering a state, that is, the exercise of the machinery of state to make and enforce laws, formulate and carry out policies, maintain order and provide for the welfare of the people. In this sense government is seen as an activity or skill, the practical business of managing the affairs of a state and controlling the people within it.

(b) Why government is important as an art of governing

1. Maintenance of law and order: Through the art of governing, the state makes and enforces laws that keep peace, prevent chaos and protect life and property.
2. Protection of the state and its citizens: It provides for internal security and external defence, safeguarding the territory and the people against threats.
3. Provision of social services and welfare: It enables the state to provide amenities such as education, health, roads and water for the well-being of the people.
4. Settlement of disputes: It establishes courts and institutions that resolve conflicts among individuals and groups peacefully and justly.
5. Regulation of the economy: It manages and directs economic activities, controls resources and formulates policies that promote development and prosperity.
6. Promotion of unity and common goals: It harmonises the diverse interests of citizens and directs them towards achieving common national objectives, thereby ensuring orderly and progressive society.

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The Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN) was formed in 1978 under the leadership of Chief Obafemi Awolowo during the Second Republic. It was largely a successor to the old Action Group and drew its strongest support from the South-West.

(a) Aims and objectives of the UPN

1. Free education at all levels: The party pledged free, qualitative education from primary to university level to eradicate ignorance and illiteracy.
2. Free health services: It aimed at providing free medical care for all citizens to eliminate disease and improve public health.
3. Full (gainful) employment: The party sought to guarantee jobs for all able and willing citizens and to reduce unemployment.
4. Integrated rural development: It planned to develop the rural areas by providing roads, water, electricity and agricultural support to check rural-urban migration.
5. Eradication of poverty, ignorance and disease: The overall philosophy was social welfare and the creation of an egalitarian society based on democratic socialism.
6. Promotion of national unity and democratic government: It aimed to sustain democracy, the rule of law and a united Nigeria.

(b) Four achievements of the party

1. Free education: In the states it controlled (such as the old Oyo, Ogun, Ondo, Lagos and Bendel states) it introduced free primary and secondary education, greatly increasing school enrolment.
2. Free health services: It established free health-care programmes and built hospitals and health centres in its states.
3. Rural and infrastructural development: It constructed roads, provided pipe-borne water and rural electrification and set up housing schemes.
4. Effective and accountable governance: The UPN-controlled states became models of prudent, welfare-oriented administration, demonstrating disciplined and people-centred government.

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(a) Definition of Fundamental Human Rights

Fundamental Human Rights are the basic rights and freedoms which every human being is entitled to enjoy by virtue of being a person, and which are recognised, guaranteed and protected by the constitution of a state. They are inalienable rights considered so essential to human dignity and existence that they cannot lawfully be taken away, and they include the right to life, personal liberty, fair hearing, freedom of expression, freedom of movement and freedom from discrimination.

(b) Five means of safeguarding Fundamental Human Rights in a state

1. Entrenchment in the constitution: Writing the rights into a rigid, supreme constitution makes them difficult to alter and gives them the highest legal protection.
2. An independent judiciary: Impartial and independent courts interpret and enforce these rights and provide redress to citizens whose rights are violated.
3. The rule of law: Ensuring that everyone, including government, is subject to the law and that no one is punished except according to law protects citizens against arbitrary treatment.
4. A free press and free mass media: A vibrant press exposes abuses of rights and creates public awareness, thereby serving as a watchdog against violations.
5. Separation of powers: Dividing power among the executive, legislature and judiciary so that each checks the others prevents the concentration and abuse of power that endangers rights.

Other safeguards include the activities of human rights organisations and pressure groups, and the provision of legal aid so that the poor can defend their rights.

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Six factors that led to the growth of nationalism in Nigeria before 1945

1. The impact of Western education: Education produced an enlightened elite who became conscious of their rights, understood the principles of freedom and self-government, and led the demand for political rights.
2. The activities of the press: Newspapers such as the Lagos Daily News and the West African Pilot exposed the injustices of colonial rule, educated the people politically and awakened national consciousness.
3. Formation of political parties and associations: Bodies such as the Nigerian National Democratic Party (1923) and the Nigerian Youth Movement (1934) organised the people and voiced their grievances against colonial rule.
4. Economic exploitation and grievances: Resentment against colonial economic policies, discrimination in employment and pay, heavy taxation and the domination of trade by foreign firms bred discontent and the desire for change.
5. Influence of returnees and Pan-Africanism: Nigerians who had studied or lived abroad, together with Pan-African movements and the ideas of leaders such as Marcus Garvey, inspired racial pride and the demand for self-rule.
6. The influence of Christian missionaries and returned ex-slaves: Missionary activity and the return of educated ex-slaves helped spread new ideas of liberty, equality and self-improvement.

Other factors include improved communication and transport, which brought people together and eased the spread of nationalist ideas, and racial discrimination that united Nigerians against colonial rule.

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Six features of a parliamentary system of government

1. Dual executive: There are two heads, a ceremonial head of state (a monarch or president) who reigns but does not rule, and a head of government (the Prime Minister) who exercises real executive power.
2. Fusion of powers: There is no strict separation between the executive and the legislature; members of the executive (the Cabinet) are drawn from and remain members of the legislature.
3. Collective responsibility: The Prime Minister and the members of the Cabinet are jointly and collectively responsible to the parliament for their actions and stand or fall together.
4. Supremacy of parliament: The parliament is supreme; the government is accountable to it and can be removed through a vote of no confidence.
5. The Prime Minister as head of government: Executive power is exercised by the Prime Minister, who is usually the leader of the majority party in parliament and appoints the Cabinet from among its members.
6. Party discipline and majority rule: The government is formed by the party (or coalition) with a majority of seats, and strong party discipline binds members to support their party's policies.

A further feature is the existence of an official opposition and the power of the executive to dissolve parliament and call fresh elections.

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(a) Origin of the Commonwealth

The Commonwealth (formerly the British Commonwealth of Nations) is a voluntary association of independent states that were formerly under British colonial rule, together with Britain itself. Its origin lies in the gradual grant of self-government to Britain's colonies and dominions. The idea was first given formal expression at the Imperial Conferences of the early twentieth century, and the Balfour Declaration of 1926 recognised the dominions (such as Canada, Australia and New Zealand) as autonomous and equal in status to Britain. The Statute of Westminster in 1931 gave legal force to this equality. As more colonies, including Nigeria in 1960, gained independence, they chose to remain associated with Britain, transforming the body into the modern Commonwealth of Nations, a free association of equal and independent sovereign states owing common allegiance to the British Crown as its symbolic head.

(b) Four benefits of membership of the Commonwealth

1. Economic and technical assistance: Members receive aid, grants, loans and technical cooperation through schemes such as the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation.
2. Educational benefits: Members enjoy scholarships, exchange programmes and mutual recognition of qualifications, for example the Commonwealth Scholarship scheme.
3. Promotion of trade and economic cooperation: Membership opens preferential trade and investment opportunities among member states.
4. International cooperation and solidarity: Members gain a forum for consultation on world affairs, mutual diplomatic support, and promotion of democracy, human rights and good governance, plus sporting and cultural links such as the Commonwealth Games.

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Six external limitations to the exercise of the sovereignty of the state

Although a sovereign state has supreme authority over its own territory, in practice its sovereignty is limited from outside by the following:

1. International law: A state is expected to conduct its affairs in conformity with the accepted rules and conventions of international law, which restrict what it may lawfully do in relation to other states.
2. Membership of international organisations: By joining bodies such as the United Nations, the African Union and ECOWAS, a state accepts their charters, obligations and decisions, which limit its freedom of action.
3. Treaties and international agreements: When a state signs treaties or pacts, it binds itself to honour the terms, thereby surrendering part of its freedom to act as it pleases.
4. Diplomacy and international public opinion: The need to maintain good relations and a good image before other states and the world community compels a state to moderate its conduct.
5. Economic interdependence: Dependence on other states for trade, aid, loans and investment, and the conditions attached to them by donors and bodies such as the IMF and World Bank, constrain a state's decisions.
6. Military alliances and the balance of power: Defence pacts, alliances and the fear of stronger nations or of collective sanction restrain a state from acting entirely as it wishes.

The activities of powerful multinational corporations and the influence of super-powers are further external constraints.

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Federalism is a system in which governmental powers are shared between a central (national) government and component (regional or state) governments, each supreme within its own sphere. Several factors made federalism the most suitable system for Nigeria.

1. Large size of the country: Nigeria's vast geographical area made unitary control from a single centre impracticable, so power had to be devolved to component units.
2. Ethnic and cultural diversity: The existence of many ethnic groups (Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba, Igbo and hundreds of minorities) with different languages and customs demanded a system that would allow each group some measure of self-rule.
3. Fear of domination by the minorities and larger groups: Smaller ethnic groups feared being swallowed up by the larger ones, so federalism was adopted to protect them and give each region autonomy.
4. Existence of regional differences in development: Uneven economic, educational and social development among the regions made a single uniform policy unworkable, favouring regional governments.
5. Colonial administrative arrangement: The British administered Nigeria as separate protectorates and later as regions (North, East and West), laying a structural foundation for a federal arrangement.
6. Desire for unity in diversity: Federalism offered a way to hold the diverse peoples together in one nation while allowing each unit to preserve its identity, thus promoting national unity without total centralisation.

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(a) Meaning of Foreign Policy

Foreign policy refers to the set of principles, objectives and strategies adopted by a state to guide and protect its interests in its relations with other states and international organisations. It defines how a country conducts its external affairs in order to safeguard its national interest, security and prestige in the international community.

(b) Five factors that influence Nigeria's foreign policy

1. National interest: The paramount consideration is the protection of Nigeria's economic, security and political interests, especially within Africa.
2. Geographical location and size: Nigeria's position in West Africa and its large size and population give it a leadership role that shapes its policy, for example its Afrocentric focus.
3. Economic capability: The strength of the economy, particularly oil wealth, determines the resources available to pursue foreign policy goals such as aid to other African states.
4. Military strength: The size and capability of the armed forces affect Nigeria's ability to intervene, as seen in ECOMOG peace-keeping operations.
5. Public opinion and ideology: Domestic public opinion, the pressure of interest groups, and ideological commitments such as non-alignment and anti-colonialism influence policy direction.
6. Nature of leadership: The disposition and personality of the Head of State or government strongly colours the tone and priorities of the country's external relations.

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Six merits of the Richards Constitution of 1946 in Nigeria

1. Introduction of the federal principle: It divided the country into three regions, North, West and East, and thereby laid the foundation for the federal system of government in Nigeria.
2. Establishment of regional councils: It created a House of Assembly for each region (and Houses of Chiefs in the North and West), which brought government closer to the people at the regional level.
3. Unification of the country: For the first time it brought the Northern and Southern provinces together under a single central legislative council, promoting national unity.
4. Wider African representation: It increased the number of Africans in the Central Legislative Council, giving Nigerians a greater voice in the affairs of their country than before.
5. Inclusion of the North in the central legislature: It brought the Northern region into the central law-making body for the first time, integrating the North into national politics.
6. Encouragement of regional development: By recognising the regions, it allowed each region to attend to its peculiar needs and encouraged development along regional lines.

It also provided useful political experience that prepared Nigerians for greater self-government under later constitutions.

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Six features of the traditional Yoruba political system

1. The Oba as head: Each Yoruba town or kingdom was headed by an Oba, a sacred and revered monarch regarded as second in command to the gods (Alaye or Kabiyesi), who was the political, religious and judicial head of the community.
2. Monarchy based on ruling houses: The office of Oba was hereditary within recognised ruling houses, and a new Oba was chosen from the eligible houses by the kingmakers.
3. Rule by kingmakers and a council of chiefs: The Oba did not rule alone but governed with the advice and consent of the Oyo Mesi (in Oyo) or a council of chiefs, who selected the Oba and checked his powers.
4. Checks and balances: The powers of the Oba were checked by institutions such as the Oyo Mesi, led by the Bashorun, and the Ogboni society, so that a tyrannical Oba could be asked to abdicate or commit suicide, guarding against absolutism.
5. Decentralised administration: The kingdom was divided into wards, quarters and villages headed by subordinate chiefs (Baale) who administered their areas and were responsible to the Oba, allowing local self-government.
6. The Ogboni and other institutions: Powerful bodies such as the Ogboni secret society performed judicial, legislative and religious functions and served as a further check on the Oba.

The system also featured a standing military organisation, headed by the Are-Ona-Kakanfo, for the defence of the kingdom.

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(a) Meaning of Local Government

Local government is the lowest tier of government, established by law to administer a defined local area, and given the power to make bye-laws, raise some revenue and provide services for the people within its area of authority. It is usually run by elected councils and officials who are closest to the grassroots, and it exists to bring government nearer to the people and to cater for purely local needs.

(b) Five sources of Local Government revenue

1. Statutory allocation: The share of national revenue paid to local councils from the Federation Account by the federal government forms their largest source of income.
2. Grants from the state government: Local governments receive grants and a share of the internally generated revenue of their state governments.
3. Local rates and taxes: They collect community or tenement rates and certain taxes such as market and cattle taxes from residents and traders within their areas.
4. Licences, fees and permits: Income is earned from the issue of licences and permits, for example for bicycles, trucks, liquor, kiosks and radio, and from various fees.
5. Fines and charges from council services: Revenue comes from fees and charges on services such as motor parks, markets, abattoirs, health facilities and from court fines.

Other sources include rents from council property, loans, and profits from any commercial ventures owned by the council.