JAMB UTME - Commerce - 2008

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A document which gives a legal status to a company is the certificate of incorporation. This document is issued by the government and confirms that a company has been registered and legally recognized as a separate legal entity from its owners. The certificate of incorporation is a crucial document that gives a company the legal right to conduct business, open bank accounts, and enter into contracts. To obtain a certificate of incorporation, a company must file the necessary paperwork with the relevant government agency, typically the Companies House in the UK or the Secretary of State in the US. This paperwork typically includes the company's name, its registered address, details of its directors and shareholders, and its articles of association. Once the paperwork is reviewed and approved, the government issues a certificate of incorporation, which serves as proof that the company is legally recognized and authorized to operate. In summary, the certificate of incorporation is a crucial document that gives a company legal status and the ability to operate as a separate legal entity.

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The activity that involves the derivation of raw materials from land and sea is extraction. This refers to the process of extracting natural resources such as minerals, oil, gas, timber, and fish from the earth and oceans. Extraction is an important economic activity that helps to create jobs and generate income for individuals and countries. Examples of extraction activities include mining, drilling for oil and gas, logging, and fishing.

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The sum of money paid by a policy-holder to an insurer is referred to as a premium. In insurance, a premium is the amount of money paid by a policy-holder to an insurance company in exchange for coverage against specific risks or losses. It is usually paid on a regular basis, such as monthly or annually, and the amount of the premium is determined by several factors, including the level of coverage, the type of policy, and the risk level of the policy-holder. For example, if you purchase a car insurance policy, you will typically pay a premium to the insurance company to obtain coverage for potential accidents or damage to your car. The amount of the premium will depend on a variety of factors, such as the type of car you drive, your driving record, and the level of coverage you select. Overall, the premium is the price that a policy-holder pays to an insurance company in order to receive protection against specific risks or losses.

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An example of a cartel is OPEC. A cartel is a group of independent producers or suppliers who collaborate to manipulate the price or supply of a particular product or service in the market. Cartels are formed to increase the profits of the members of the cartel by restricting competition. They may also set production quotas, fix prices, or divide markets among themselves. OPEC, or the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, is a well-known example of a cartel. It is an international organization made up of 13 member countries that are major oil-producing nations. OPEC controls a significant portion of the world's oil supply and seeks to influence oil prices by coordinating their production levels. OPEC was formed in 1960 to coordinate and unify the petroleum policies of its member countries. Over the years, OPEC has played a significant role in the global oil market, with its decisions and policies often affecting oil prices around the world. In summary, OPEC is an example of a cartel because it is a group of independent oil-producing nations that collaborate to manipulate the price and supply of oil in the market.

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When an employee incurs expenses while executing his normal duty, the employer is responsible for his indemnification. Indemnification refers to the act of compensating someone for a loss or damage that they have suffered. In the context of employment, indemnification means that the employer is responsible for reimbursing the employee for any expenses that they incur while carrying out their duties. For example, if an employee needs to travel for work and incurs expenses such as transportation, lodging, or meals, the employer is responsible for reimbursing the employee for these expenses. Similarly, if an employee needs to purchase equipment or supplies to perform their job, the employer is responsible for reimbursing the employee for these expenses. Indemnification is an important aspect of employment as it ensures that employees are not unfairly burdened with expenses that they incur while performing their duties. By reimbursing employees for these expenses, employers can also help to increase employee morale and job satisfaction. In summary, when an employee incurs expenses while executing their normal duty, the employer is responsible for their indemnification, which means reimbursing the employee for any expenses they incurred while carrying out their duties.

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The promotion of savings culture is a feature of a thrift cooperative society. Thrift cooperative societies are organizations that are formed with the aim of promoting savings culture among their members. They encourage their members to save money by providing them with a safe and secure place to keep their savings. They also offer loans to their members at a low-interest rate. One of the key features of thrift cooperative societies is that they are member-owned and member-controlled. This means that the members have a say in the running of the organization and benefit from any profits that are made. Thrift cooperative societies also provide financial education to their members, which helps them to make informed decisions about their finances. This education includes topics such as budgeting, debt management, and savings. In summary, the promotion of savings culture is a fundamental aspect of thrift cooperative societies, and they are structured in a way that encourages members to save and manage their finances wisely.

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The coordinating section of the Central Processing Unit (CPU) that manages the flow of data is the Control Unit (CU). The Control Unit is responsible for directing the operations of the CPU. It manages the flow of data between the different parts of the CPU, including the memory and the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), which performs the mathematical and logical operations. The Control Unit uses a clock signal to synchronize the operations of the CPU and to ensure that instructions are executed in the correct order. It also fetches instructions from memory and decodes them into a form that can be executed by the CPU. Overall, the Control Unit acts as the "brain" of the CPU, directing the flow of data and ensuring that instructions are executed correctly and in the right sequence.

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A historical building is a feature of cultural tourism. Cultural tourism involves travel to destinations that offer cultural attractions, experiences, and activities. This includes visits to historical sites, museums, galleries, cultural festivals, and other cultural events. Historical buildings are an important part of cultural tourism as they offer visitors the opportunity to experience the history and culture of a particular place. These buildings may include ancient temples, castles, palaces, museums, and other important landmarks that represent the history and culture of a particular region. Visitors to historical buildings can learn about the history, architecture, art, and other cultural aspects of the region. This can help them to gain a deeper understanding and appreciation of the local culture, and can also contribute to the preservation and promotion of cultural heritage. Overall, historical buildings are an important feature of cultural tourism as they offer visitors a unique and memorable experience that allows them to explore and appreciate the history and culture of a particular place.

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To prevent liquidity in commercial banks, the central bank uses the reserve ratio. The reserve ratio is the percentage of deposits that banks are required to hold in reserve, rather than lending out. This reserve requirement ensures that banks have enough cash on hand to meet the demands of their depositors. If the central bank wants to reduce liquidity in the banking system, it can increase the reserve ratio, which reduces the amount of money that banks have available to lend. This, in turn, reduces the amount of money in circulation and can help to prevent inflation. Moral suasion is a strategy that involves persuading banks to take certain actions voluntarily, rather than using regulations or laws. Fiscal policy refers to the use of government spending and taxation to influence the economy. Taxation is a means of raising revenue for the government and can also be used to influence economic behavior, but it is not directly related to preventing liquidity in commercial banks. In summary, the central bank uses the reserve ratio to prevent liquidity in commercial banks by requiring them to hold a certain percentage of deposits in reserve, rather than lending them out.

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An account maintained with a commercial bank for the purpose of foreign exchange transactions is called a domiciliary account. A domiciliary account is an account that is denominated in a foreign currency, such as US Dollars, Euros, or Pounds Sterling. This type of account is used to receive and send foreign currencies, and it is often used for international business transactions or to receive payments from abroad. With a domiciliary account, you can carry out foreign exchange transactions easily and efficiently, without having to worry about exchange rate fluctuations. You can also receive and hold funds in foreign currency without having to convert them into your local currency. In summary, a domiciliary account is an account that allows you to conduct foreign exchange transactions with ease and convenience. It is an essential tool for businesses and individuals that engage in international transactions and need to hold and transfer funds in foreign currencies.

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An agreement between two parties that is enforceable by law is a contract. A contract is a legally binding agreement between two or more parties that outlines the terms and conditions of a particular transaction or relationship. It establishes the rights and obligations of each party and provides a framework for resolving disputes that may arise between them. For a contract to be legally enforceable, it must include a mutual agreement, an exchange of something of value, and clear terms and conditions that are agreed upon by both parties. If one party fails to meet their obligations as outlined in the contract, the other party can take legal action to enforce the terms of the agreement. Therefore, contracts are an important tool for ensuring that business relationships are conducted in a fair and transparent manner.

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The factor in a business environment that increases the rate of product obsolescence is technology. This is because advancements in technology can quickly make existing products obsolete by introducing new and improved products that are more efficient, faster, or offer new features that customers desire. As technology advances, customers' expectations and demands change, and businesses must keep up with these changes to remain competitive. This means that businesses must continuously innovate and update their products to keep pace with the rapidly changing technology landscape. Failure to do so can lead to a decline in sales and ultimately, the failure of the business.

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The association to which all chambers of commerce in Nigeria are affiliated is the Nigeria Association of Chambers of Commerce, Industry, Mines and Agriculture (NACCIMA). It is a non-profit, private sector organization made up of chambers of commerce and industry, as well as other business associations and groups in Nigeria. Its main objective is to promote and protect the interests of its members and the Nigerian business community at large. NACCIMA serves as a platform for business advocacy, networking, and capacity building for its members.

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The quality and quantity of production mostly depend on the effectiveness of factors. Factors of production are the resources needed for the production of goods and services. They include land, labor, capital, and entrepreneurship. The effectiveness of these factors refers to their efficiency and how well they are utilized in the production process. For example, a manufacturing plant may have all the necessary resources, including the right amount of land, labor, and capital, but if these factors are not used effectively, the quality and quantity of production will suffer. On the other hand, if the factors are used effectively, production can be optimized, leading to an increase in the quality and quantity of output. This can include things like improving the production process, investing in better equipment or technology, training employees to be more efficient, and ensuring that the right inputs are being used in the production process. Therefore, the effectiveness of factors is critical in determining the quality and quantity of production in a business.

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The art of soap-making is an example of a secondary occupation. This refers to an economic activity that is carried out by an individual in addition to their primary occupation or source of income. In other words, it is a part-time activity that is done to supplement income or as a hobby. Soap-making is a craft that involves the creation of soap from raw materials such as oils, lye, and fragrances. While it is possible for someone to make soap as their primary occupation, it is more common for it to be a secondary occupation. Many people who make soap do so as a hobby or as a small-scale business in addition to their main source of income. In contrast, a primary occupation is a person's main job or career, from which they derive the majority of their income. A tertiary occupation, on the other hand, is a service-related activity that does not involve the production of physical goods, such as banking or education. Finally, a construction occupation involves building or repairing physical structures, such as buildings or roads. In summary, soap-making is an example of a secondary occupation, which is an activity that is done in addition to a primary occupation to supplement income or as a hobby.

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A crossed cheque with the inscription 'not negotiable' must be paid into the current account of the payee. The phrase 'not negotiable' on a crossed cheque implies that the cheque cannot be endorsed and transferred to another person. Instead, it can only be paid into the account of the payee, and the bank is not obliged to verify the payee's title to the cheque. Therefore, the cheque cannot be paid into the current account of the drawer or the savings or fixed account of the payee, but only into the current account of the payee.

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The process of changing the form of a new material is known as fabrication. It involves the creation or modification of a product through cutting, bending, welding, or other methods to transform raw materials into a finished product. Fabrication is commonly used in manufacturing and construction industries to create various products such as machinery, structural steel, and consumer goods. The process may involve several steps such as design, planning, material selection, and assembly. Extraction refers to the process of removing a specific substance from a raw material. Conversion involves changing a material from one form to another. Production refers to the overall process of creating goods or services, which may involve multiple steps including extraction, conversion, and fabrication. In summary, fabrication is the process of changing the form of a new material by using various techniques to create or modify a product, which distinguishes it from other processes like extraction, conversion, and production.

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The body charged with divesting government interests in public enterprises is the Bureau of Public Enterprises (BPE). The BPE is a Nigerian government agency responsible for the privatization and commercialization of public enterprises in Nigeria. Its main function is to divest the government's interests in public enterprises by selling them to private investors. This process is intended to improve the efficiency and profitability of the enterprises, as well as to reduce the government's financial burden. For example, if the government owns a power generation company, the BPE would be responsible for organizing the sale of the company to a private investor or group of investors. The BPE would manage the process of identifying potential investors, evaluating bids, and ensuring that the sale is conducted transparently and in accordance with Nigerian laws and regulations. Overall, the BPE plays a critical role in the Nigerian government's efforts to promote private sector participation in the economy and to reduce the government's role in the ownership and management of public enterprises.

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The cheapest source of funds available to a company is through retained profits. This is because the company does not have to pay interest on the funds like in the case of borrowing from banks or bondholders, or share dividends to shareholders. Instead, the company can use the profits it has earned to reinvest in the business, pay off debts, or distribute dividends. Retained profits are funds that are kept within the company instead of being paid out as dividends. They represent an important source of internal financing for a company and can be used for a variety of purposes, such as funding growth opportunities, expanding operations, or improving infrastructure.

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The elimination of most barriers to international trade has been achieved through globalization. Globalization refers to the integration and interdependence of economies, societies, and cultures through cross-border trade, investment, and technological advancements. With globalization, countries have adopted more open trade policies and reduced barriers to international trade such as tariffs, quotas, and other restrictions. This has allowed for more efficient allocation of resources and increased competition in the global market, resulting in increased economic growth and development. Therefore, globalization has been instrumental in eliminating most barriers to international trade.

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The balance of payments is a record of all the transactions between the residents of a country and the rest of the world over a period of time. It is made up of two main components: the current account and the capital account. The current account records all transactions related to trade in goods and services, income from investments, and unilateral transfers such as aid and remittances. The capital account records all transactions related to the acquisition and disposal of assets and liabilities, such as foreign direct investment, portfolio investment, and loans. Therefore, the correct option is "current and capital items".

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Maintaining a tidy and safe environment is a form of social responsibility of a business. This means that a business has a duty to ensure that its operations do not have negative impacts on the environment and the society at large. This includes keeping the workplace clean and safe for employees, ensuring that waste products are properly disposed of, and complying with environmental regulations. By doing so, the business is contributing to the well-being of the society and the preservation of the environment.

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The four Ps of marketing are: price, product, place, and promotion. These are the four key elements that make up a marketing mix, which is a set of tools and tactics used by businesses to promote and sell their products or services. The four Ps represent different aspects of the marketing mix: 1. Price refers to the amount of money that a customer pays for a product or service. It includes factors such as discounts, payment terms, and pricing strategies. 2. Product refers to the actual goods or services that a business offers to its customers. This includes factors such as quality, design, packaging, and features. 3. Place refers to the channels or methods used by a business to distribute its products or services to customers. This includes factors such as location, distribution channels, and logistics. 4. Promotion refers to the activities that a business undertakes to communicate with and persuade customers to buy its products or services. This includes factors such as advertising, public relations, sales promotions, and personal selling. Overall, the four Ps provide a framework for businesses to develop and execute marketing strategies that effectively target and engage their customers. By carefully considering each of these elements, businesses can create compelling and effective marketing campaigns that drive sales and build brand loyalty.

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The persons engaged in primary occupation are iii and iv, which are the fisherman and gardener. A primary occupation is one that involves the direct extraction or production of raw materials from natural resources, or the direct provision of services to individuals. Fishermen are engaged in the primary occupation of fishing, where they directly extract fish from natural resources, while gardeners are engaged in the primary occupation of agriculture, where they directly produce fruits, vegetables, and flowers from natural resources. Shoe makers, policemen, and brokers are engaged in secondary or tertiary occupations, which involve the processing, manufacturing, or provision of services to support the primary activities. Shoe makers process leather to make shoes, policemen provide security services to the community, and brokers provide financial services to clients.

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The implied provisions in every sale of goods, as contained in the Sale of Goods Act of 1893, are conditions and warranties. These provisions provide certain rights to buyers and impose certain obligations on sellers in the sale of goods. Conditions are major terms of the contract that are fundamental to the transaction. They are so important that if they are not met, the buyer has the right to reject the goods and terminate the contract. For example, if a buyer orders a red car, but the seller delivers a blue one, the buyer can reject the car because the color was a condition of the contract. Warranties are minor terms of the contract that are not considered essential to the transaction. They are promises made by the seller about the quality, performance, or condition of the goods. If a warranty is breached, the buyer can claim damages but cannot reject the goods. For example, if a seller promises that a car will have a CD player, but it does not, the buyer can claim damages but cannot reject the car because the CD player was a warranty, not a condition. Therefore, the implied provisions of conditions and warranties in the Sale of Goods Act of 1893 provide important protections and obligations for both buyers and sellers in the sale of goods.

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The practice whereby government relinquishes its ownership interest in a public enterprise is called privatization. Privatization refers to the transfer of ownership and control of public enterprises from the government to private individuals or companies. This process involves selling some or all of the government's shares in the enterprise to private investors, who then become the new owners and managers of the enterprise. The aim of privatization is often to improve the efficiency and profitability of the enterprise, as private owners are typically more focused on profit-making than governments. Additionally, privatization can lead to increased competition, which can drive innovation and better service delivery. For example, if the government owns a telecommunications company, it may choose to privatize it by selling its shares to private investors. The new owners would then be responsible for managing the company and making decisions about its operations and investments. Overall, privatization is a common method used by governments around the world to reduce their role in the ownership and management of public enterprises, and to promote private sector participation in the economy.

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The resources that are necessary for business development include man, money, materials, and machines. Man refers to the human resources or labor that is needed to run the business. These are the people who perform tasks and operations to ensure the smooth running of the business. Money refers to the financial resources that are required to start and grow the business. These resources can come from various sources, including investors, loans, and revenues generated by the business. Materials refer to the raw materials or goods that are needed to produce the final product or service that the business offers. These materials could be sourced locally or internationally, depending on the nature of the business. Machines refer to the equipment and tools that are needed to manufacture or produce the goods or services that the business provides. These machines could be anything from a computer to a large piece of manufacturing equipment. Therefore, the resources that are necessary for business development include man, money, materials, and machines. A business needs these resources to be successful and grow over time. By having the right mix of these resources, a business can increase its efficiency, productivity, and profitability.

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The development of tourism in Nigeria will enhance revenue generation. Tourism is a major contributor to the economy of many countries, as it generates foreign exchange earnings and creates employment opportunities for the local population. In Nigeria, the development of tourism can create a significant source of revenue for the country, as it has a rich cultural heritage, diverse wildlife, and scenic attractions that can attract both domestic and international tourists. As more tourists visit Nigeria, they will spend money on accommodation, transportation, food, and other services, which will generate revenue for the country. This revenue can be used to develop other sectors of the economy, such as agriculture, education, and healthcare. In addition, the development of tourism can create job opportunities for the local population, particularly in the hospitality industry, which can help reduce unemployment and poverty. Furthermore, the development of tourism can also lead to the growth of other related industries, such as transportation, construction, and retail, which can further stimulate economic growth and development. Therefore, the development of tourism in Nigeria has the potential to enhance revenue generation and contribute significantly to the country's economic development.

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The computer component that decodes and interprets instructions and directs program implementation is the central processing unit (CPU). The CPU is considered the "brain" of the computer, as it performs the majority of the processing that enables a computer to function. The CPU receives instructions from memory and then decodes and interprets those instructions, directing the computer to execute the appropriate program. It consists of two main components: the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and the control unit (CU). The ALU performs mathematical and logical operations on data, while the CU directs the flow of data between the CPU, memory, and input/output devices. Together, the ALU and CU work together to process data and execute instructions, making the CPU a vital component in the operation of a computer.

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Ships used for international transport are ocean liners. Ocean liners are large ships designed for carrying passengers and cargo across long distances, particularly for international travel. They are typically equipped with a range of amenities to make the journey comfortable for passengers, such as restaurants, lounges, and entertainment facilities. Ocean liners are often used for transoceanic voyages, such as crossing the Atlantic or Pacific oceans, and are an important means of international transport for both people and goods. They are capable of carrying large volumes of cargo and passengers, and are often used for commercial purposes such as shipping goods and materials between different countries. Overall, ocean liners are an essential component of international transport and have played a critical role in facilitating global trade and commerce throughout history.

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An example of a non-insurable risk is speculation. Speculation is a financial risk that involves buying or selling assets in the hope of making a profit, but there is no guarantee that the investment will be successful. Because the outcome of speculation is uncertain, it is not possible to accurately assess and underwrite the risk, and therefore, it cannot be insured. Other examples of non-insurable risks include events that are outside of human control, such as war or natural disasters, which are referred to as "acts of God."

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A software program that can be used to generate financial reports from a company's client list is MS Excel. MS Excel is a spreadsheet software program that allows users to organize, analyze, and manipulate data in a tabular format. It is a popular tool for creating financial reports as it allows users to input financial data and perform various calculations and analyses on that data. To generate financial reports from a company's client list in MS Excel, the user would first need to input the necessary financial data into a spreadsheet. This data could include information such as revenue, expenses, and profits for each client. The user can then use built-in Excel functions and formulas to calculate metrics such as gross profit, net profit, and profit margin. Excel also has built-in charting tools that allow users to create visual representations of the data, such as graphs and charts. Overall, MS Excel is a powerful tool for generating financial reports from a company's client list, as it allows users to easily input, analyze, and manipulate financial data in a user-friendly format.

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The pooling of business information for the benefit of members is a major function of a trade association. A trade association is an organization made up of businesses that operate in the same industry or trade. The primary purpose of a trade association is to promote the common interests of its members. One way it does this is by gathering and sharing information about the industry, such as market trends, regulatory changes, and best practices. By pooling this information and sharing it with members, a trade association can help its members make informed decisions, stay competitive, and adapt to changing conditions in the marketplace. For example, a trade association for the restaurant industry might collect information about new food safety regulations, share best practices for hiring and training staff, and provide market research on consumer preferences for different types of cuisine. By sharing this information with its members, the trade association can help them improve their operations, stay compliant with regulations, and better meet the needs of their customers. Overall, a trade association serves as a valuable resource for businesses in a particular industry, helping them stay informed, connected, and competitive.

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The aspect of commerce that facilitates the distribution of products is transportation. Transportation involves moving goods from one location to another, whether it's from the manufacturer to the retailer or from the retailer to the end consumer. It is an important aspect of commerce because it ensures that products are available to consumers in different locations. Transportation can be done through various means such as road, air, water, or rail. Without transportation, products would be limited to the location where they were produced, and it would be difficult for consumers to access products that are not locally available. Therefore, transportation is crucial in facilitating the distribution of products in commerce.

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A trader who gives credit stands to enjoy increased sales. When a trader offers credit to their customers, they allow them to purchase goods or services and pay for them at a later date. This can be an attractive option for customers who may not have the necessary funds at the time of purchase. By offering credit, the trader can attract more customers who may not have been able to purchase their goods or services otherwise. This can lead to increased sales, as more people are now able to make purchases. Additionally, offering credit can help build customer loyalty, as customers appreciate the flexibility of being able to make purchases without having to pay immediately. While offering credit may come with some risks, such as the possibility of customers defaulting on payments, it can also provide a competitive advantage for the trader. As a result of increased sales and customer loyalty, the trader may be able to generate higher profits in the long run. Therefore, a trader who gives credit stands to enjoy increased sales and potential for higher profits, which can be beneficial for their business.

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When proposing a company name for registration, it is important to ensure that it does not conflict with the name of another company that has already been registered. The proposed company name must also contain the word 'limited'. However, a proposed company may not be registered if it does not have a minimum paid-up capital or assets of its own to run its operations.

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A type of retail trade where a group of similar stores which is owned by a firm operates in different locations is known as chain stores. This means that the same company owns and operates multiple stores, often selling the same products and services, but in different locations. The chain stores are known for their consistency in branding, marketing, and overall customer experience, which helps to build customer loyalty and trust. The chain stores may have different sizes, layouts, and product offerings, but they maintain the same brand image across all locations.

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One major factor that can hinder effective communication is noise. Noise can refer to any unwanted sound that interferes with the message being communicated. It could be physical noise like loud music, traffic or construction, or it could be non-physical noise like poor phone or internet connection. Noise can make it difficult for the recipient to hear or understand the message being conveyed, leading to miscommunication or even complete failure of the communication process. Therefore, it is important to minimize noise and ensure clear communication to achieve effective communication.

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The document sent by a seller to inform a buyer about the prices of goods is called a price list. This document lists the prices of goods and services offered by the seller, and is usually sent to prospective or existing buyers to help them make informed decisions about purchases. The price list may include item descriptions, quantities, unit prices, and total prices for each item, and may be updated periodically to reflect changes in prices or product offerings.

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A warehouse used to store goods on which customs duty is not yet paid is called a "bonded warehouse." It is a secure storage facility where imported goods are held until the necessary customs duties are paid, or the goods are exported. Bonded warehouses are supervised by customs officials and are generally located near ports or other entry points into a country. They allow importers to defer paying customs duties and taxes until the goods are actually sold, helping to reduce the upfront costs of importing.

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In the long run, all factors of production are variable. Factors of production are the resources that are used to produce goods and services. They include land, labor, capital, and entrepreneurship. In the short run, some factors of production may be fixed, meaning that they cannot be easily changed, while others are variable, meaning that they can be adjusted in response to changes in demand. However, in the long run, all factors of production are variable because firms have more flexibility to adjust their production processes. For example, a firm may be able to expand its factory or hire more workers in the long run to increase production in response to higher demand. Similarly, a firm may be able to reduce its production capacity in the long run if demand falls. In the long run, firms have more time to make adjustments to their production processes and can choose to change any of the factors of production in order to optimize their operations. This makes all factors of production variable in the long run. In summary, in the long run, all factors of production are variable because firms have more flexibility to adjust their production processes and can change any of the factors of production in order to optimize their operations.

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When "FOB" is written on a document, it implies that the buyer bears the transport and communication costs. FOB stands for "Free on Board," which means that the seller is responsible for the cost of loading the goods onto a shipping vessel or other transport mode. However, once the goods are loaded and in transit, the buyer becomes responsible for all costs associated with transporting the goods to their final destination, including any necessary communication costs. This term is commonly used in international trade to define the point at which the buyer assumes responsibility for the goods and associated costs. It is important to clarify the FOB point in any contract or agreement to avoid confusion and ensure that both parties understand their obligations and responsibilities.