WAEC SSCE - Government - 2008 (Essay)

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(a) Definition of Communism

Communism is a political and economic ideology, associated with Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, which advocates a classless society in which the means of production, distribution and exchange are collectively owned by the community or state rather than by private individuals, and in which goods are distributed according to need. It aims at the abolition of private property and the eventual withering away of the state.

(b) Four features of Communism

1. Common ownership of the means of production: Land, factories, and other productive resources are owned collectively by the state on behalf of the people, not by private individuals.
2. Classless society: Communism seeks to abolish social classes so that there are no exploiters and exploited, and all citizens are treated as equals.
3. Central economic planning: The economy is planned and controlled by the state, which decides what to produce, how much, and how it is distributed, replacing the free market.
4. Distribution according to need: The guiding principle is "from each according to his ability, to each according to his need," so that wealth is shared to meet the needs of all citizens.
5. Abolition of private property: Private ownership of productive property is abolished, and the profit motive is discouraged in favour of collective welfare.

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(a) Nationalist Movement

A nationalist movement is an organised, collective struggle by the indigenous people of a country to resist foreign or colonial rule and to secure political independence, self-government and control of their own affairs. In British West Africa it was expressed through political parties, the press, trade unions and pressure groups agitating against colonial domination.

(b) Five effects of nationalist activities in British West Africa

1. Attainment of independence: Sustained nationalist agitation compelled Britain to grant self-government and eventual independence to its West African colonies.
2. Constitutional reforms: Nationalist pressure produced successive constitutions that steadily increased African representation and participation in governance.
3. Growth of political parties: The movements gave birth to organised political parties that mobilised the masses and shaped politics after independence.
4. Awakening of political consciousness: Nationalism raised the political awareness of the people and encouraged a sense of unity and shared identity.
5. Development of education and the press: Nationalists spread education and founded newspapers that enlightened the populace and served as tools of the struggle.
6. Emergence of indigenous leaders: The struggle produced a class of African leaders who assumed control of government upon independence.

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The rights of a citizen can be protected in the following ways:

1. Entrenchment in the constitution: Writing fundamental human rights into the constitution as justiciable provisions makes them supreme and difficult to tamper with.
2. An independent judiciary: Impartial courts free from executive interference can hear complaints of rights violations and grant redress.
3. Rule of law: Upholding the supremacy of the law and equality before it ensures that citizens are not subjected to arbitrary treatment.
4. A free press: A vigilant and independent press exposes abuses of rights and mobilises public opinion against oppression.
5. Separation of powers: Dividing government powers among the arms prevents concentration and abuse that could threaten citizens' rights.
6. Provision of the writ of habeas corpus: This legal remedy protects citizens against unlawful arrest and detention by compelling the state to justify or end the detention.
7. Activities of pressure groups and civil society: Human rights organisations, trade unions and other groups defend citizens and campaign against violations.
8. Independent electoral and anti-corruption bodies: Free elections and accountability institutions restrain government and safeguard citizens' political rights.

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(a) Nationalist Movement

A nationalist movement is an organised, collective struggle by the indigenous people of a country to resist foreign or colonial rule and to win political independence, self-government and control over their own affairs. In British West Africa it took the form of political parties, the press, unions and pressure groups agitating for freedom from colonial domination.

(b) Five effects of nationalist activities in British West Africa

1. Attainment of independence: Nationalist agitation eventually forced Britain to grant self-government and independence to the West African colonies.
2. Constitutional reforms: The pressure of nationalists led to a series of constitutional changes that progressively widened African representation and participation in government.
3. Growth of political parties: Nationalist activities gave rise to organised political parties which mobilised the people and formed the basis of post-independence politics.
4. Political awareness and unity: The movements awakened political consciousness among the people and fostered a spirit of unity and common purpose across ethnic lines.
5. Expansion of education and the press: Nationalists promoted education and established newspapers that enlightened the people and became powerful instruments of the struggle.
6. Rise of indigenous leadership: The struggle threw up a generation of African leaders who took over the reins of government after independence.

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The Lyttleton Constitution of 1954 introduced a full federal structure to Nigeria. Its merits and demerits are as follows:

(a) Three merits of the Lyttleton Constitution

1. It established a true federal system: It clearly divided powers between the central and regional governments, giving Nigeria a genuine federal structure for the first time.
2. It granted regional autonomy: The regions were given wide powers over their own affairs, and provision was made for regional self-government, which some regions later attained.
3. It made the regional legislatures wholly elective and created the office of Premier: Each region had its own Premier and Executive Council, strengthening responsible government at the regional level.

(b) Three demerits of the Constitution

1. It weakened the centre and encouraged regionalism: By granting the regions so much power, it fostered strong regional loyalties at the expense of national unity.
2. It abolished the office of a central Premier: There was no Prime Minister for the whole federation at first, leaving a weak centre without a clear national political leadership.
3. It deepened ethnic and regional rivalry: The emphasis on regional power intensified competition and suspicion among the major ethnic groups and their political parties.

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Making Africa the centrepiece of Nigeria's foreign policy has had both advantages and disadvantages.

Three merits

1. Leadership and prestige: Championing African causes gave Nigeria the status of a leader and a big brother on the continent, enhancing its international image and influence.
2. Promotion of African liberation and unity: The policy enabled Nigeria to support decolonisation, the anti-apartheid struggle and the formation of bodies such as the OAU and ECOWAS, strengthening African solidarity.
3. Regional peace and security: Through peacekeeping and mediation, notably in Liberia and Sierra Leone under ECOMOG, Nigeria helped to restore stability in the sub-region, which serves its own security interests.

Three demerits

1. Heavy financial burden: The policy drained enormous resources through aid, grants and military intervention, often to the neglect of domestic needs.
2. Neglect of national interest: Critics argue that Nigeria spent so much on other African states that it received little tangible benefit in return, sometimes even ingratitude.
3. Overstretch and abuse: Constant intervention exposed Nigerian troops to danger and loss of lives, and the generosity was sometimes exploited by ungrateful beneficiaries.

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(a) Definition of Public Opinion

Public opinion is the collective view, belief or attitude expressed by a significant number of people in a community on issues of common concern at a particular time. It is the aggregate of individual opinions on public matters which government and other authorities cannot afford to ignore.

(b) Three factors that can promote public opinion in a state

1. A free press and mass media: Newspapers, radio, television and social media inform citizens about public issues and provide the channels through which opinions are formed and expressed.
2. High level of literacy and education: An educated and enlightened population can understand issues, reason about them and articulate informed opinions, thereby strengthening public opinion.
3. Freedom of expression and association: Where citizens are free to speak, assemble and form associations without fear, opinions can be freely aired and organised into a powerful public voice.
4. Existence of pressure groups and political parties: These organisations educate, mobilise and channel the views of their members, helping to crystallise public opinion on issues.
5. A stable and democratic political system: Democracy encourages participation, debate and tolerance of divergent views, all of which nurture the growth of public opinion.

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Several political factors weakened the Organization of African Unity (OAU). Four of them are outlined below:

1. The principle of non-interference in internal affairs: The charter forbade the OAU from intervening in the domestic affairs of member states, so it could not check tyranny, coups or human rights abuses within member countries.
2. Ideological differences among member states: Members were divided between radical and conservative blocs, and between those aligned to the East and West during the Cold War, making common action difficult.
3. Persistent inter-state and border disputes: Boundary conflicts and rivalries among member states, some inherited from colonialism, created disunity and undermined collective decisions.
4. Absence of a supranational authority and enforcement power: The OAU had no army or coercive machinery to enforce its resolutions, so its decisions were largely advisory and frequently ignored.
5. Personality clashes and the ambitions of leaders: Rivalry and mutual suspicion among African heads of state hampered co-operation and weakened unity.
6. External interference: The influence of former colonial powers and superpowers over individual member states divided the organisation and diluted its independence.

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(a) The Crown Colony system

A Crown Colony was a territory directly administered by the British Crown through officials appointed from London. In the West African setting, notably Lagos, the system placed authority in the hands of a Governor who was assisted by an Executive Council and a Legislative Council. The Governor was appointed by and responsible to the British monarch through the Colonial Office. Members of the councils were nominated rather than elected, and the Governor exercised wide powers including the power to make laws, appoint officials and veto decisions. Real authority therefore rested with British officials, with little or no genuine participation by the indigenous people.

(b) Four reasons why it was unpopular among the educated elite

1. Absence of elective representation: Members of the councils were nominated by the Governor rather than elected by the people, so the educated elite had no say in choosing their representatives.
2. Domination by British officials: Real power lay with the Governor and colonial officials, and Africans were excluded from meaningful positions of authority.
3. Denial of self-government: The system offered no path towards autonomy, frustrating the elite who desired greater participation and eventual independence.
4. Racial discrimination: The elite resented the discriminatory practices under which Africans were treated as inferior and denied equal opportunities with Europeans in the civil service.
5. Arbitrary powers of the Governor: The wide, unchecked powers of the Governor, including his veto, denied the people any effective control over legislation affecting them.

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Military regimes are often reluctant to hand over power to civilian administrations for the following reasons:

1. Love of power and its privileges: Once in office, military rulers enjoy the enormous power, prestige and material benefits of office and are unwilling to give them up.
2. Fear of prosecution: Having committed abuses, corruption or human rights violations, they fear being tried, punished or disgraced once they lose the protection of office.
3. Unfinished programmes: They frequently claim that their transition or reform programmes are incomplete and use this as a reason to prolong their stay.
4. Economic and personal interests: Military officers and their associates who have amassed wealth and business interests want to protect these gains, which a civilian government might threaten.
5. Distrust of politicians: They argue that the politicians are corrupt, divided and incapable of good governance, and that handing over would return the country to chaos.
6. Ambition to perpetuate themselves: Some rulers seek to transform themselves into civilian presidents or install loyal successors so as to retain influence.
7. Fear of instability and revenge: They dread the political reprisals and instability that could follow their departure from power.

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Local governments are important in a state for the following reasons:

1. Bringing government closer to the people: Local government takes governance to the grassroots, enabling ordinary people to relate directly with the authority that administers their affairs.
2. Provision of essential services: It provides basic amenities such as rural roads, markets, primary health care, refuse disposal, water and primary education to the local community.
3. Political education and participation: It offers citizens the opportunity to take part in the running of their own affairs, serving as a training ground for political awareness and leadership.
4. Grassroots development: Being closest to the people, it identifies and attends to local needs and mobilises local resources for the development of the area.
5. Reduction of the workload of central government: By handling purely local matters, it relieves the state and federal governments of routine responsibilities so that they can concentrate on wider issues.
6. Promotion of national unity and stability: By allowing diverse communities to manage their own affairs, it accommodates local interests and helps hold the nation together.
7. Quick response to local problems: Because it is on the spot, it can respond more rapidly to emergencies and the peculiar problems of the locality than a distant central government.

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(a) The principle of the Rule of Law

The rule of law, associated with A. V. Dicey, is the principle that the law is supreme and that everybody, whether governor or governed, rich or poor, is subject to the same law and the ordinary courts of the land. It rests on three main ideas: the supremacy of the law over arbitrary power, equality of all persons before the law, and the protection of individual rights and liberties by an independent judiciary. Under it, no person may be punished except for a definite breach of the law established in the ordinary courts.

(b) How the rule of law can be ensured in a state

1. Independence of the judiciary: Judges must be free from the control of the executive and legislature so that they can dispense justice impartially.
2. Fundamental human rights entrenched in the constitution: Citizens' rights should be guaranteed and made enforceable in the courts.
3. Fair hearing and due process: Every accused person must be given a fair and public trial, presumed innocent until proven guilty, and allowed legal representation.
4. Equality before the law: The law must apply equally to all citizens without discrimination on grounds of status, wealth, religion or office.
5. Separation of powers: Dividing governmental powers among the executive, legislature and judiciary prevents the concentration and abuse of power.
6. A free press and enlightened public opinion: A vigilant press and informed citizenry expose abuses of power and hold government accountable.
7. Absence of arbitrary arrest and detention: No one should be detained without being charged before a court within a reasonable time.