WAEC SSCE - Government - 1991 (Essay)

Military coups were frequent in Nigeria between 1966 and 1993 because of a combination of political, economic and institutional failures. The reasons are accounted for below:

1. Corruption and mismanagement: Widespread corruption, embezzlement of public funds and misuse of office by politicians gave the military a ready excuse to seize power in the name of national rescue.
2. Political instability and violence: Bitter inter-party rivalry, thuggery, rigged elections and regional conflicts created disorder that the military claimed only it could correct.
3. Weak democratic institutions: The institutions meant to check abuse of power, such as the legislature, judiciary and electoral bodies, were fragile and easily manipulated, leaving no strong civilian defence against military takeover.
4. Personal and group ambition: Ambitious officers seized power for personal gain, promotion and the privileges that came with office, sometimes cloaking selfish motives in patriotic language.
5. Ethnic and regional rivalry: Deep-seated ethnic suspicion and the struggle for dominance among the major groups spilled into the barracks and provided grounds for coups and counter-coups.
6. Economic hardship and inequality: Poverty, unemployment, inflation and glaring inequality bred discontent that the military exploited to justify intervention.
7. Success of earlier coups: Once the first coup succeeded, it set a precedent and emboldened other officers, making the takeover of government appear normal and achievable.
8. Indiscipline and factionalism in the army: Rivalry, grievances over promotion and lack of professionalism within the armed forces encouraged plotting against the government of the day.

The cabinet (parliamentary) system has distinctive features that clearly separate it from the presidential system. The following are its characteristic features:

1. Fusion of powers: The executive and legislative arms are fused rather than separated. Ministers are drawn from and remain members of the legislature (parliament), unlike the presidential system where strict separation of powers exists.
2. Dual executive: There is a distinction between the Head of State (a ceremonial monarch or president) and the Head of Government (the Prime Minister who wields real executive authority). In the presidential system a single person, the President, combines both roles.
3. Collective responsibility: The cabinet is collectively responsible to the legislature. If a vote of no confidence is passed, the entire government resigns. Presidential systems have no such doctrine.
4. The Prime Minister is first among equals: The head of government is not elected directly by the people but emerges as leader of the majority party in parliament, whereas the President is directly elected by the electorate.
5. No fixed tenure of office: The government stays in power only as long as it enjoys the confidence of the legislature and can be removed at any time. The President enjoys a fixed term.
6. Presence of an official opposition: There is a recognised shadow cabinet formed by the minority party ready to take over government. This is not a feature of the presidential system.
7. Power to dissolve parliament: The Prime Minister can advise the Head of State to dissolve parliament and call fresh elections, a power the President does not possess.

Since joining the United Nations Organisation in 1960, Nigeria has played an active and constructive role. Its contributions include the following:

1. Peacekeeping operations: Nigeria has contributed troops and police to numerous UN peacekeeping missions in the Congo, Lebanon, the former Yugoslavia, Somalia, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Darfur and elsewhere, earning a reputation as a leading contributor.
2. Opposition to colonialism and apartheid: Nigeria consistently used the UN platform to campaign for the decolonisation of Africa and for the dismantling of the apartheid regime in South Africa.
3. Financial contributions: Nigeria has met its financial obligations by paying its assessed dues and contributing to various UN programmes and agencies.
4. Participation in UN organs and agencies: Nigerians have served in the General Assembly, the Security Council (as a non-permanent member on several occasions), and specialised agencies such as UNESCO, WHO and UNICEF, with citizens holding important UN positions.
5. Support for world peace and disarmament: Nigeria has supported UN efforts at peaceful settlement of disputes, disarmament and the reduction of international tension.
6. Promotion of human rights: Nigeria has supported UN conventions and declarations on human rights, refugees and the welfare of women and children.
7. Advocacy for reform: Nigeria has consistently canvassed for the reform and democratisation of the UN, including the expansion of the Security Council to give Africa permanent representation.

A one-party system is one in which only a single political party is legally allowed to exist and to contest for power. For the following reasons it would not be a good option for Nigeria.

1. Nigeria's ethnic and cultural diversity: Nigeria is a plural society of many ethnic groups, religions and interests. A single party could not fairly accommodate this diversity, and any group excluded from power would feel alienated, threatening national unity.
2. Denial of freedom of choice: A one-party system deprives citizens of alternative candidates and programmes. Elections become meaningless, since the voter has no real choice, and this violates the democratic right to choose.
3. Tendency towards dictatorship: With no rival party to check it, the ruling party easily degenerates into authoritarian and dictatorial rule, suppressing opposition and dissent.
4. Absence of effective opposition: Democracy thrives on a strong opposition that criticises and checks the government. A one-party state has no legal opposition, so the government is not held accountable and mistakes go uncorrected.
5. Encouragement of corruption and abuse of power: Without the fear of being voted out or exposed by rivals, leaders in a one-party state are prone to corruption, impunity and abuse of office.
6. Suppression of fundamental human rights: Freedom of association, of expression and of the press is usually curtailed, since criticism of the sole party is treated as opposition to the state.
7. Stifling of political participation and new ideas: Citizens who disagree with the ruling party have no legitimate outlet, which discourages participation and may drive opposition underground, breeding instability and violence.

For these reasons a multi-party system, which offers choice, competition and accountability, is far more suitable for a diverse country such as Nigeria.

A series of political crises between 1962 and 1967 destroyed national confidence and culminated in the Nigerian civil war of 1967 to 1970. Five major crises are discussed below:

1. The 1962/63 census crisis: The population figures released were widely disputed and believed to have been inflated for political advantage. Because parliamentary seats and revenue allocation depended on population, the controversy deepened mutual suspicion among the regions.
2. The Western Region crisis of 1962: A leadership struggle within the Action Group between Chief Obafemi Awolowo and Chief S. L. Akintola led to violence in the Western House of Assembly, a declaration of a state of emergency, and the eventual break-up of the party, throwing the region into disorder.
3. The 1964 federal election crisis: The general election was marred by widespread rigging, intimidation and a boycott by some parties. The disputed results and the reluctance of the President to appoint a Prime Minister created a serious constitutional deadlock.
4. The 1965 Western Region election crisis: The regional election was massively rigged in favour of Akintola's party, provoking mass protests, arson and killings popularly known as "Operation Wetie," which spread lawlessness across the West.
5. The military coups of 1966: The January 1966 coup, in which prominent Northern and Western leaders were killed, was seen as an Igbo coup. The counter-coup of July 1966 and the subsequent massacre of Igbo people in the North provoked a mass return of easterners home.

These crises, worsened by the failure of the Aburi accord, led the Eastern Region to declare the Republic of Biafra, plunging the country into civil war.

Meaning of political participation. Political participation refers to the various ways in which citizens take part in the political process of their country. It covers all the voluntary activities through which members of a society become involved in the selection of leaders and in the making, shaping and implementation of public policy. The extent of participation varies from casual interest to full-time political activity.

Ways in which a citizen participates in politics.

1. Voting at elections: Registering as a voter and casting one's ballot to choose leaders is the most basic form of participation.
2. Membership of a political party: Joining a party, paying dues and taking part in its activities.
3. Contesting for elective office: Standing as a candidate for a political position such as councillor, legislator, governor or president.
4. Campaigning and canvassing: Mobilising support for candidates or parties and encouraging others to vote.
5. Attending political meetings and rallies: Being present at party congresses, rallies and public debates.
6. Joining pressure groups: Belonging to trade unions, professional bodies or interest groups that seek to influence government policy.
7. Discussing and forming public opinion: Debating public issues, writing to newspapers, and using the media to express political views.
8. Holding public or party office: Accepting appointment or election into government or party positions.
9. Peaceful protest and petition: Taking part in lawful demonstrations, petitions and other means of expressing grievances to government.
10. Paying taxes and obeying the law: Fulfilling civic obligations that sustain the political system.

A pressure group is an organised association of people who share common interests and who seek to influence government policy in their favour without themselves seeking to form the government. Pressure groups may be classified into the following types.

1. Economic or interest (protective) pressure groups: These defend the material and occupational interests of their members. Examples are trade unions such as the Nigeria Labour Congress (NLC), employers' associations such as the Manufacturers Association of Nigeria (MAN), and business groups such as chambers of commerce.
2. Professional pressure groups: These protect the interests and standards of members of a profession. Examples are the Nigerian Bar Association (NBA), the Nigerian Medical Association (NMA) and the Nigeria Union of Teachers (NUT).
3. Promotional or ideological (cause) pressure groups: These promote a particular cause or idea that is not limited to their own members. Examples are human-rights bodies such as the Civil Liberties Organisation, anti-corruption groups, and environmental campaigners.
4. Religious pressure groups: These advance the interests of a religious body. Examples are the Christian Association of Nigeria (CAN) and the Jama'atu Nasril Islam (JNI).
5. Sectional, ethnic or cultural pressure groups: These defend the interests of an ethnic or regional community. Examples are Afenifere, Ohanaeze Ndigbo and the Arewa Consultative Forum.
6. Student and youth pressure groups: These press the interests of students and young people, for example the National Association of Nigerian Students (NANS).

Some writers also distinguish between anomic groups (spontaneous, temporary groups such as riot crowds) and institutional groups (formal bodies such as the army or civil service that press their interests from within government).

The cabinet is the body of senior ministers, headed by the Prime Minister or the President, which forms the core of the executive branch. Its role in government includes the following.

1. Formulation of government policy: The cabinet is the highest policy-making body of the executive. It deliberates upon and decides the general policies of the government at home and abroad.
2. Implementation of laws and policies: Each minister heads a ministry and is responsible for executing the laws made by the legislature and the policies agreed in cabinet.
3. Coordination of government activities: The cabinet coordinates the work of the various ministries and departments so that government acts as a single, harmonious body.
4. Advising the head of government: It advises the Prime Minister or President on major national issues and on the running of the state.
5. Control and supervision of the administration: Ministers direct and supervise the civil servants in their ministries to ensure that government business is efficiently carried out.
6. Preparation of the budget and financial proposals: The cabinet, through the minister of finance, prepares the annual budget and other financial measures for presentation to the legislature.
7. Initiation of legislation: Most bills brought before the legislature originate from the cabinet, which decides the government's legislative programme.
8. Provision of political leadership: In the parliamentary system the cabinet is collectively responsible to the legislature and provides overall political leadership and direction to the nation.
9. Handling of emergencies: The cabinet takes prompt decisions and measures in times of crisis, such as war, natural disaster or serious civil disorder.

Federalism was adopted in Nigeria because the country's peculiar circumstances made a unitary arrangement unworkable. The following factors necessitated its adoption:

1. Large size of the country: Nigeria's vast geographical expanse made effective administration from a single centre difficult, so power was shared between the centre and the regions.
2. Ethnic and cultural diversity: Nigeria is made up of numerous ethnic groups with different languages, customs and traditions. Federalism allowed each group a measure of self-government while preserving national unity.
3. Fear of domination: The smaller ethnic groups feared domination by the larger ones (Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba and Igbo). A federal structure guaranteed regional autonomy and reduced this fear.
4. Wide differences in level of development: The regions had reached uneven levels of educational, economic and social development. Federalism enabled each region to develop at its own pace.
5. Colonial administrative legacy: The British had already governed Nigeria as separate protectorates and later along regional lines, laying a structure that naturally lent itself to federalism.
6. Differences in religion: The predominantly Muslim North and the largely Christian South differed in religious and social outlook, making a decentralised system preferable.
7. Desire for unity in diversity: Federalism offered a means of holding the diverse peoples together as one nation while allowing them to manage their local affairs.