WAEC SSCE - Government - 2012 (Essay)

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Features of Igbo Traditional Society

The Igbo of south-eastern Nigeria operated a decentralised, republican political system without a central monarch. Its main features were:

1. Absence of a centralised authority (stateless/acephalous system): There was no single powerful king ruling over the whole society; each village or town governed itself independently.
2. Direct/participatory democracy: Government was based on the village assembly where all adult males had the right to attend, speak and take part in decision-making. Decisions were reached by consensus.
3. Rule by the council of elders and titled men: The elders (Ndichie), heads of families and holders of titles such as the Ozo exercised authority and settled disputes on behalf of the community.
4. Age-grade system: Age grades organised the youth for tasks such as sanitation, defence, road-making and enforcement of decisions, and served as an important instrument of administration and social control.
5. Kinship and family (lineage) organisation: Society was built on the extended family and lineage, with the oldest man (Okpara/Ofo holder) as head, giving strong communal and blood ties.
6. Role of religion and secret societies: Belief in gods, ancestors and oracles (such as the Ozo institution and secret societies like Mmanwu) reinforced law, order and morality.
7. Republican and egalitarian outlook: The Igbo prized individual achievement and equality; leadership was earned through hard work, wisdom and titles rather than inherited.

(Any six of the above are acceptable.)

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Functions of the legislature

1. Law-making. The legislature makes, amends and repeals the laws of the state.
2. Control of public finance. It approves the budget, authorises taxation and government spending and scrutinises public accounts.
3. Oversight of the executive. It checks and controls the executive through questions, debates, motions and investigations, and can pass a vote of no confidence in a parliamentary system.

Limitations of the legislature

1. Judicial review. The courts can declare its laws unconstitutional and therefore null and void.
2. Executive influence and delegated legislation. A dominant executive, party control and the delegation of law-making to ministers reduce the legislature's real power.
3. Constitutional and procedural limits. The constitution, entrenched clauses, human-rights provisions and required special majorities restrict what the legislature can do.

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Features of the Macpherson Constitution of 1951

1. It was a product of wide consultation: Unlike earlier constitutions, it was drawn up after extensive discussions with Nigerians at village, divisional, provincial and national levels, so it is often described as the first "made in Nigeria" constitution.
2. It introduced a genuine federal structure: Nigeria was divided into three regions - Northern, Western and Eastern - each with its own regional legislature (House of Assembly) and executive council.
3. Enlarged central legislature: It provided for a Central House of Representatives with a larger number of Nigerian members, most of whom were elected indirectly by the regional houses.
4. Regional Houses of Assembly: Each region had a legislature, and the Northern Region additionally had a House of Chiefs, while the Western Region also had a House of Chiefs.
5. Council of Ministers: A central Council of Ministers was created, made up of the Governor, official members and Nigerian ministers drawn from the regions, giving Nigerians a share in executive functions.
6. Regional executive councils: Each region had its own executive council with Nigerian ministers, marking a measure of regional self-government.
7. The Governor retained wide powers: The Governor still held reserved and veto powers and could override the legislature, so ultimate control remained with the British.

(Any six of the above are acceptable.)

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Characteristics of a democratic government

1. Periodic free and fair elections. Leaders are chosen at regular intervals through elections in which citizens vote freely.
2. Popular participation. Citizens take part in government directly or through elected representatives; sovereignty resides in the people.
3. Rule of law. Everyone, including the rulers, is subject to the law, and no one is punished except for a breach of law established in the courts.
4. Protection of fundamental human rights. Freedoms of speech, association, movement, religion and the press are guaranteed.
5. Existence of an opposition. Rival parties are free to criticise the government and offer alternatives.
6. Separation of powers. The legislative, executive and judicial functions are shared among different organs to prevent abuse.
7. Independence of the judiciary. Courts are free from executive and legislative control and dispense justice impartially.
8. Majority rule with respect for minority rights. Decisions follow the will of the majority while the rights of minorities are protected.
9. Accountability of government. Those in power are answerable to the people for their conduct.

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(a) Meaning of Civil Service

The civil service is the body of permanent, non-political employees of government, organised into ministries and departments, whose duty is to formulate and implement the policies and programmes of the government of the day. Its members are appointed on merit, are politically neutral, and remain in office irrespective of the political party in power. They serve any duly constituted government with equal loyalty.

(b) Structure of the Civil Service

The civil service is hierarchically organised into ministries and departments, each with a graded chain of command:

• Minister/Commissioner: The political head of a ministry, appointed by the President or Governor. He gives political direction and answers for the ministry in the legislature, but is not a career civil servant.
• Permanent Secretary: The administrative and professional head of the ministry. He is a career civil servant, the chief accounting officer, and adviser to the minister; he ensures continuity of administration.
• Directors: Senior officers who head the various directorates or divisions within the ministry and supervise the professional and technical work.
• Deputy Directors and Assistant Directors: Middle-level managers who coordinate the departments and units under each directorate.
• Principal, Senior and other Officers: These execute the day-to-day work of the units.
• Junior/Clerical and Auxiliary staff: Typists, clerks, messengers and other support staff who carry out routine duties.

The whole service is regulated and controlled by the Civil Service Commission, which handles recruitment, promotion and discipline, and every ministry is grouped by function (for example Ministries of Finance, Education, Health, Works, Foreign Affairs).

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Merits of pressure groups in a democratic state

1. They promote participation. Pressure groups draw more citizens into political and public affairs between elections.
2. They educate the public and government. By researching and publicising issues, they inform citizens and supply government with expert opinion.
3. They protect and articulate interests. They defend the sectional interests of their members, such as workers, farmers or professionals.
4. They check the government. Through lobbying, petitions and protests they restrain government from oppressive or unpopular policies.
5. They act as a link between government and the people. They channel the demands and grievances of the people to the authorities.
6. They serve as a training ground for leaders. Members gain organisational and leadership experience useful in wider political life.
7. They strengthen democracy. By providing alternative centres of influence, they prevent the concentration of power and enrich public debate.

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(a) Meaning of Nationalism

Nationalism is the strong feeling of love, loyalty and devotion which a people have for their own country, together with the desire and organised struggle to free that country from foreign (colonial) domination and to achieve self-government or independence. It is the collective consciousness that binds people of common interest to resist alien rule and manage their own affairs.

(b) External factors that aided the growth of nationalism in West Africa

1. The Second World War (1939-1945): Ex-servicemen who fought abroad returned with new ideas, having seen that the white man was not invincible, and demanded freedom for their own countries.
2. The Atlantic Charter (1941): The declaration by Roosevelt and Churchill affirming the right of all peoples to choose their own form of government encouraged Africans to demand self-determination.
3. Formation of the United Nations Organisation: The UN Charter, which upheld self-determination and condemned colonialism, gave moral support to nationalist demands.
4. The influence of Pan-Africanism: Pan-African congresses and leaders such as W.E.B. Du Bois and Marcus Garvey inspired West Africans to unite and fight colonial rule.
5. Independence of other countries (Asian example): The independence of India, Pakistan and other Asian states showed West Africans that colonial rule could be ended.
6. Activities of educated Africans trained abroad: Nationalists such as Nnamdi Azikiwe and Kwame Nkrumah, educated in Europe and America, returned with liberal and democratic ideas that fuelled the struggle.

(Any five external factors are acceptable.)

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Problems Facing the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)

1. Language and colonial barriers: The division of member states into English-speaking, French-speaking and Portuguese-speaking blocs creates communication problems and rival loyalties, especially the continuing influence of France over the francophone states.
2. Inadequate funding: Many member states fail to pay their financial contributions promptly, leaving the organisation short of funds to run its programmes.
3. Political instability: Frequent coups, civil wars and insecurity in member states (such as Liberia, Sierra Leone, Mali and Guinea-Bissau) disrupt cooperation and integration.
4. Differences in currency and economies: The absence of a common currency and the varying levels of economic development among members hamper free trade and monetary union.
5. Problem of free movement: Despite the protocol on free movement of persons, harassment at borders, expulsion of aliens and smuggling continue to hinder integration.
6. Over-dependence on foreign powers: Many members remain economically tied to their former colonial masters, which weakens intra-regional trade and unity.
7. Duplication of efforts: The existence of other regional bodies such as the francophone UEMOA creates rivalry and divided loyalty.

(Any six of the above are acceptable.)

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(a) Independence of the judiciary

Independence of the judiciary means that the courts and judges are free from the control, interference or influence of the legislature and the executive, so that they can interpret the law and administer justice impartially, without fear or favour.

(b) Reasons for the independence of the judiciary

1. To ensure impartial justice. Free from external pressure, judges can decide cases purely on the merits and the law, without bias.
2. To protect citizens' rights and liberties. An independent judiciary can defend fundamental human rights against abuse by the government.
3. To uphold the rule of law. It ensures that everyone, including the government, is subject to and judged by the same law.
4. To check the other arms of government. Through judicial review the courts can declare acts of the legislature and executive unconstitutional, preserving the separation of powers.
5. To sustain confidence in the legal system. When the public trusts that courts are fair, they resort to the courts rather than to self-help.

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Factors Affecting Nigeria's Foreign Policy

Foreign policy is the set of principles and actions that guide a country's relations with other states. The formulation and conduct of Nigeria's foreign policy are shaped by the following factors:

1. National interest: The overriding aim of protecting Nigeria's security, economic well-being and prestige determines the direction of its external relations.
2. Geographical location: Nigeria's position in West Africa and its size make relations with neighbouring states (Benin, Niger, Chad, Cameroon) and leadership in the sub-region a priority.
3. Economic strength/resources: The state of the economy, especially oil revenue and financial ability, determines how far Nigeria can pursue its objectives, give aid and influence others.
4. Military strength: The size and capability of the armed forces affect Nigeria's ability to defend itself and take part in peace-keeping operations abroad.
5. Ideology and political system: The nature of the government (military or civilian) and its ideological leaning influence the style and content of foreign policy.
6. Public opinion and pressure groups: The views of citizens, the press, interest groups and the National Assembly influence decisions on external matters.
7. Historical/colonial ties: Membership of the Commonwealth and ties with Britain and other former colonies shape Nigeria's alignments.
8. International organisations and treaties: Obligations to the UN, AU, ECOWAS and Commonwealth constrain and guide Nigeria's actions.

(Any six of the above are acceptable.)

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Features of the Policy of Indirect Rule in West Africa

Indirect rule was the British system of governing their colonies through existing traditional rulers and native institutions. Its main features were:

1. Use of traditional rulers: The British governed the people through their own chiefs, emirs and kings, who ruled on behalf of and under the supervision of British officials.
2. Native Authorities: Local administration was organised around Native Authorities headed by the traditional ruler, who exercised executive powers over their areas.
3. Native/Customary Courts: Courts were established to administer justice based largely on native law and custom, presided over by the traditional rulers.
4. Native Treasury (Beit-el-mal): Each Native Authority kept a treasury into which local taxes were paid and out of which local services and salaries were financed.
5. Supervision by British Residents and District Officers: British officers advised, guided and controlled the traditional rulers, ensuring that colonial policies were carried out.
6. Retention of native laws and customs: The system preserved and worked through existing customs, so long as they were not repugnant to natural justice.

(Any four of the above are acceptable.)

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(a) Formation of the Nigerian National Alliance (NNA) of 1964

The Nigerian National Alliance was a political alliance formed in 1964 in preparation for the federal elections of that year. It was an alliance between the Northern People's Congress (NPC), led by Sir Ahmadu Bello, and the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) of Chief S.L. Akintola in the Western Region, together with some smaller parties such as the Niger Delta Congress, the Dynamic Party and the Midwest Democratic Front. The alliance was formed to counter the rival United Progressive Grand Alliance (UPGA) made up of the NCNC, Action Group and their allies. The NNA broadly represented conservative interests and drew its main strength from the North and the ruling group in the West.

(b) Achievements of the Alliance

1. It won the controversial 1964 federal elections and formed the central government, retaining power at the centre.
2. It kept Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa in office as Prime Minister after the elections.
3. It brought together the NPC and NNDP as partners, strengthening the position of the ruling group in the Northern and Western Regions.
4. It provided an organised platform that mobilised conservative political forces against the UPGA.
5. It maintained, for a time, the political dominance of the North at the federal level and preserved the existing power structure.

(Any five points are acceptable.)