WAEC SSCE - Geography - 2008 (Essay)
Question 1 Report
(a) Highlight three factors which favour lumbering in either Zaire or Cote d'Ivoire
(b) Describe the method of lumber in one of the countries chosen in (a) above
(c) Outline four problems associated with lumbering in Africa.
(a) Three factors that favour lumbering in Cote d'Ivoire (or Zaire/DR Congo):
- Extensive dense tropical rain-forest: a large area is covered by rain-forest containing valuable hardwoods such as mahogany, obeche, iroko and sapele, giving a big supply of timber.
- Hot, wet equatorial climate: high temperatures and heavy, well-distributed rainfall promote rapid and continuous tree growth all year.
- Navigable rivers and improving transport: rivers, together with roads, railways and ports (Abidjan, San Pedro; or the Congo river system), make it possible to move heavy logs to sawmills and to the coast for export; a market abroad and available labour also help.
(b) Method of lumbering in Cote d'Ivoire:
Lumbering is carried out by selective felling because the valuable trees are scattered among many worthless ones. First the forest is surveyed and the mature, valuable trees are marked. Access roads and tracks are cut into the forest. The selected trees are felled with power saws (chain-saws) and the branches removed. The heavy logs are dragged (skidded) to a loading point by tractors or winches, then loaded onto trucks or floated down rivers to the sawmills at the coast, where they are sawn into planks or processed into plywood and veneer for local use and export.
(c) Four problems associated with lumbering in Africa:
- Mixed nature of the forest: valuable trees are widely scattered among many useless species, making felling and extraction costly.
- Difficulty of transport: the heavy logs and the dense, wet forest with few roads make movement of timber slow and expensive.
- Pests, diseases and dense undergrowth: tsetse fly, mosquitoes and thick undergrowth hamper work in the forest, and some timber is attacked by pests.
- Shortage of skilled labour and capital, and deforestation: lack of trained workers and machinery slows the industry, while over-cutting leads to forest destruction and soil erosion.
Answer Details
(a) Three factors that favour lumbering in Cote d'Ivoire (or Zaire/DR Congo):
- Extensive dense tropical rain-forest: a large area is covered by rain-forest containing valuable hardwoods such as mahogany, obeche, iroko and sapele, giving a big supply of timber.
- Hot, wet equatorial climate: high temperatures and heavy, well-distributed rainfall promote rapid and continuous tree growth all year.
- Navigable rivers and improving transport: rivers, together with roads, railways and ports (Abidjan, San Pedro; or the Congo river system), make it possible to move heavy logs to sawmills and to the coast for export; a market abroad and available labour also help.
(b) Method of lumbering in Cote d'Ivoire:
Lumbering is carried out by selective felling because the valuable trees are scattered among many worthless ones. First the forest is surveyed and the mature, valuable trees are marked. Access roads and tracks are cut into the forest. The selected trees are felled with power saws (chain-saws) and the branches removed. The heavy logs are dragged (skidded) to a loading point by tractors or winches, then loaded onto trucks or floated down rivers to the sawmills at the coast, where they are sawn into planks or processed into plywood and veneer for local use and export.
(c) Four problems associated with lumbering in Africa:
- Mixed nature of the forest: valuable trees are widely scattered among many useless species, making felling and extraction costly.
- Difficulty of transport: the heavy logs and the dense, wet forest with few roads make movement of timber slow and expensive.
- Pests, diseases and dense undergrowth: tsetse fly, mosquitoes and thick undergrowth hamper work in the forest, and some timber is attacked by pests.
- Shortage of skilled labour and capital, and deforestation: lack of trained workers and machinery slows the industry, while over-cutting leads to forest destruction and soil erosion.
Question 2 Report
(a) In what four ways does a town differ from a village?
(b) With examples, describe four functions which a village may perform for a town.
(a) Four ways in which a town differs from a village:
| Town | Village |
|---|---|
| Large population, often in thousands | Small population, usually a few hundred |
| People engage mainly in non-agricultural work (trade, industry, services) | People engage mainly in farming, fishing and other primary activities |
| Has many and varied functions and services (banks, hospitals, schools, industries) | Has few, simple services |
| Large built-up area with high building density and infrastructure (tarred roads, electricity, water) | Small area with scattered houses and little infrastructure |
(A town also has a wider sphere of influence and a more complex social structure than a village.)
(b) Four functions a village may perform for a town (with examples):
- Supply of food: surrounding villages produce foodstuffs (yam, cassava, vegetables, livestock) that feed the town, for example villages around Ibadan feeding the city.
- Supply of raw materials: villages provide agricultural and forest raw materials (cotton, cocoa, timber) for the town's industries.
- Supply of labour: villagers migrate to work in the town's factories, markets and construction, providing much of the urban workforce.
- Provision of dormitory (residential) and recreational space: nearby villages serve as dormitory settlements where town workers live, and as places for weekend recreation and land for expansion; they also serve as a market for the town's manufactured goods.
Answer Details
(a) Four ways in which a town differs from a village:
| Town | Village |
|---|---|
| Large population, often in thousands | Small population, usually a few hundred |
| People engage mainly in non-agricultural work (trade, industry, services) | People engage mainly in farming, fishing and other primary activities |
| Has many and varied functions and services (banks, hospitals, schools, industries) | Has few, simple services |
| Large built-up area with high building density and infrastructure (tarred roads, electricity, water) | Small area with scattered houses and little infrastructure |
(A town also has a wider sphere of influence and a more complex social structure than a village.)
(b) Four functions a village may perform for a town (with examples):
- Supply of food: surrounding villages produce foodstuffs (yam, cassava, vegetables, livestock) that feed the town, for example villages around Ibadan feeding the city.
- Supply of raw materials: villages provide agricultural and forest raw materials (cotton, cocoa, timber) for the town's industries.
- Supply of labour: villagers migrate to work in the town's factories, markets and construction, providing much of the urban workforce.
- Provision of dormitory (residential) and recreational space: nearby villages serve as dormitory settlements where town workers live, and as places for weekend recreation and land for expansion; they also serve as a market for the town's manufactured goods.
Question 3 Report
Describe the Warm Temperate, Western Margin climate (Mediterranean type) under the following headings:
(a) location; (b) climatic characteristics (c) vegetation; (d) human activities.
The Warm Temperate Western Margin (Mediterranean) climate
(a) Location: it is found on the western sides of continents between about \(30^\circ\) and \(45^\circ\) north and south of the Equator. The main areas are the lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea (Spain, Italy, Greece, North Africa), central and southern California, central Chile, the Cape region of South Africa, and south-western and southern Australia.
(b) Climatic characteristics:
- Hot, dry summers: summer temperatures are high (about \(21^\circ C\) to \(27^\circ C\)) with clear, sunny skies, because the belt comes under the influence of the dry off-shore trade winds and high pressure.
- Warm, wet winters: rain falls mainly in winter (about \(500\ mm\) to \(750\ mm\)) when the westerlies and depressions move over the region; winters are mild, around \(10^\circ C\).
- Winter rainfall maximum and abundant sunshine: the dry summer and wet winter regime is the key feature, with bright sunshine for most of the year.
(c) Vegetation: the natural vegetation is drought-resistant scrub and woodland known as maquis (or chaparral, matorral). Plants are adapted to the summer drought: they have small, thick, leathery or waxy leaves, deep or wide roots, thick bark and thorns to reduce water loss. Evergreen oaks, olive, cork oak, pines, and aromatic shrubs such as lavender and rosemary are typical, together with grasses and bulbous plants that flower in the wet season.
(d) Human activities:
- Mediterranean agriculture: cultivation of citrus fruits (oranges, lemons), olives, grapes (viticulture) for wine, figs and vegetables; the sunny summers ripen the fruit.
- Irrigated farming and market gardening where summer water is available.
- Sheep and goat rearing on the poorer scrub land.
- Tourism and wine-making industries, favoured by the warm, sunny climate and attractive coasts.
Answer Details
The Warm Temperate Western Margin (Mediterranean) climate
(a) Location: it is found on the western sides of continents between about \(30^\circ\) and \(45^\circ\) north and south of the Equator. The main areas are the lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea (Spain, Italy, Greece, North Africa), central and southern California, central Chile, the Cape region of South Africa, and south-western and southern Australia.
(b) Climatic characteristics:
- Hot, dry summers: summer temperatures are high (about \(21^\circ C\) to \(27^\circ C\)) with clear, sunny skies, because the belt comes under the influence of the dry off-shore trade winds and high pressure.
- Warm, wet winters: rain falls mainly in winter (about \(500\ mm\) to \(750\ mm\)) when the westerlies and depressions move over the region; winters are mild, around \(10^\circ C\).
- Winter rainfall maximum and abundant sunshine: the dry summer and wet winter regime is the key feature, with bright sunshine for most of the year.
(c) Vegetation: the natural vegetation is drought-resistant scrub and woodland known as maquis (or chaparral, matorral). Plants are adapted to the summer drought: they have small, thick, leathery or waxy leaves, deep or wide roots, thick bark and thorns to reduce water loss. Evergreen oaks, olive, cork oak, pines, and aromatic shrubs such as lavender and rosemary are typical, together with grasses and bulbous plants that flower in the wet season.
(d) Human activities:
- Mediterranean agriculture: cultivation of citrus fruits (oranges, lemons), olives, grapes (viticulture) for wine, figs and vegetables; the sunny summers ripen the fruit.
- Irrigated farming and market gardening where summer water is available.
- Sheep and goat rearing on the poorer scrub land.
- Tourism and wine-making industries, favoured by the warm, sunny climate and attractive coasts.
Question 4 Report
(a) Draw an outline map of Africa. On the map, mark and name the following:
(i) the Tropical Climatic region; (ii) the Hot Desert Climatic region;
(iii) the Warm Temperate Eastern Mai Climatic region
(b) Describe any three characteristics of the Tropical Climate
(c) Outline three ways in which the vegetation of the Tropical Climate has adapted to the Climatic conditions of the reg
(a) Outline map of Africa showing the three climatic regions
The outline map below shows the position of each region asked for. The Tropical (savanna) Climatic region lies as two belts to the north and south of the equatorial zone; the Hot Desert Climatic region covers the Sahara in the north and the Kalahari/Namib in the south-west; and the Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climatic region occupies the south-eastern coast of southern Africa (the Natal coast).
(b) Three characteristics of the Tropical Climate
- Distinct wet and dry seasons. There is a single well-marked rainy season, with a peak about July, when the moist tropical maritime (South-West) winds blow, and a long dry season when the dry, dusty tropical continental (North-East trade / harmattan) winds blow.
- High temperatures all year with a large annual range. Mean monthly temperatures stay high, between about \(21^\circ\mathrm{C}\) and \(32^\circ\mathrm{C}\), the hottest period coming just before the rains; the annual range of temperature is larger than in the equatorial zone.
- Moderate, mainly convectional rainfall that decreases away from the Equator. Total annual rainfall averages about \(75\ \mathrm{cm}\) (\(750\ \mathrm{mm}\)), ranging from roughly \(60\ \mathrm{cm}\) to \(150\ \mathrm{cm}\); it falls chiefly as heavy convectional showers in the summer months and decreases from the equatorial borders towards the desert margins. Relative humidity is high (about 60-80%) in the wet season but low (about 20-40%) in the dry season.
(c) Three ways the vegetation (savanna) has adapted to the climate
- Trees are deciduous and shed their leaves in the dry season to cut down water loss through transpiration; the vegetation is therefore seasonal, green in the rains and brown in the dry season.
- Plants store water and reach deep water. Some trees, such as the baobab, develop swollen, bulbous trunks that store water, while many have long tap roots that reach down to underground water during the dry season.
- Protective leaves, bark and root systems. Trees have thick, fire-resistant bark and narrow, thorny or waxy leaves that reduce transpiration, while the tall coarse grasses survive the dry season and annual bush burning as resistant underground roots and seeds, sprouting again with the first rains.
Answer Details
(a) Outline map of Africa showing the three climatic regions
The outline map below shows the position of each region asked for. The Tropical (savanna) Climatic region lies as two belts to the north and south of the equatorial zone; the Hot Desert Climatic region covers the Sahara in the north and the Kalahari/Namib in the south-west; and the Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climatic region occupies the south-eastern coast of southern Africa (the Natal coast).
(b) Three characteristics of the Tropical Climate
- Distinct wet and dry seasons. There is a single well-marked rainy season, with a peak about July, when the moist tropical maritime (South-West) winds blow, and a long dry season when the dry, dusty tropical continental (North-East trade / harmattan) winds blow.
- High temperatures all year with a large annual range. Mean monthly temperatures stay high, between about \(21^\circ\mathrm{C}\) and \(32^\circ\mathrm{C}\), the hottest period coming just before the rains; the annual range of temperature is larger than in the equatorial zone.
- Moderate, mainly convectional rainfall that decreases away from the Equator. Total annual rainfall averages about \(75\ \mathrm{cm}\) (\(750\ \mathrm{mm}\)), ranging from roughly \(60\ \mathrm{cm}\) to \(150\ \mathrm{cm}\); it falls chiefly as heavy convectional showers in the summer months and decreases from the equatorial borders towards the desert margins. Relative humidity is high (about 60-80%) in the wet season but low (about 20-40%) in the dry season.
(c) Three ways the vegetation (savanna) has adapted to the climate
- Trees are deciduous and shed their leaves in the dry season to cut down water loss through transpiration; the vegetation is therefore seasonal, green in the rains and brown in the dry season.
- Plants store water and reach deep water. Some trees, such as the baobab, develop swollen, bulbous trunks that store water, while many have long tap roots that reach down to underground water during the dry season.
- Protective leaves, bark and root systems. Trees have thick, fire-resistant bark and narrow, thorny or waxy leaves that reduce transpiration, while the tall coarse grasses survive the dry season and annual bush burning as resistant underground roots and seeds, sprouting again with the first rains.
Question 5 Report
(a) Describe the three stages of development of a river along its course.
(b) Highlight two ways in which rivers are important to man.
(a) The three stages of development of a river along its course:
- Youthful (upper) stage: here the river is near its source in the highlands. The gradient is steep and the river flows swiftly, so it erodes chiefly vertically (downward). It carves a deep, narrow V-shaped valley with interlocking spurs, waterfalls, rapids, gorges and potholes. The channel is narrow and turbulent and the load is coarse.
- Mature (middle) stage: the gradient is gentler and the river has a larger volume from tributaries. Erosion is now both vertical and lateral (sideways), so the valley widens. The river begins to meander, forming river cliffs on the outer bends and slip-off slopes on the inner bends, and a wider valley floor develops.
- Old (lower) stage: near the mouth the gradient is very gentle and the river flows sluggishly over a broad, flat flood plain. Lateral erosion and deposition dominate: the river forms large meanders, ox-bow lakes, levees, and finally deposits its load to build a delta or estuary at the sea.
(b) Two ways in which rivers are important to man:
- Water supply and irrigation: rivers provide water for drinking, domestic use, industry and for irrigating farmland in dry areas.
- Hydro-electric power and transport: fast-flowing sections are dammed to generate electricity, while navigable stretches serve as cheap routeways for boats and for fishing. (Rivers are also important for fishing and fertile flood-plain soils.)
Answer Details
(a) The three stages of development of a river along its course:
- Youthful (upper) stage: here the river is near its source in the highlands. The gradient is steep and the river flows swiftly, so it erodes chiefly vertically (downward). It carves a deep, narrow V-shaped valley with interlocking spurs, waterfalls, rapids, gorges and potholes. The channel is narrow and turbulent and the load is coarse.
- Mature (middle) stage: the gradient is gentler and the river has a larger volume from tributaries. Erosion is now both vertical and lateral (sideways), so the valley widens. The river begins to meander, forming river cliffs on the outer bends and slip-off slopes on the inner bends, and a wider valley floor develops.
- Old (lower) stage: near the mouth the gradient is very gentle and the river flows sluggishly over a broad, flat flood plain. Lateral erosion and deposition dominate: the river forms large meanders, ox-bow lakes, levees, and finally deposits its load to build a delta or estuary at the sea.
(b) Two ways in which rivers are important to man:
- Water supply and irrigation: rivers provide water for drinking, domestic use, industry and for irrigating farmland in dry areas.
- Hydro-electric power and transport: fast-flowing sections are dammed to generate electricity, while navigable stretches serve as cheap routeways for boats and for fishing. (Rivers are also important for fishing and fertile flood-plain soils.)
Question 6 Report
(a) Draw an outline map of Nigeria. On the map show and name:
(i) the railway line from Lagos to Minna;
(ii) one area each of limestone; coal; columbite; gold.
(b) Describe the method of mining columbite in Nigeria.
(c) Highlight three adverse effects of mining in one of the mining areas in (a)(ii) above.
(a) Outline map of Nigeria showing the railway line and mineral areas
The sketch map below shows the outline of Nigeria with (i) the western railway line running from Lagos northward through Abeokuta, Ibadan, Ilorin and Jebba to Minna, and (ii) one producing area each of limestone, coal, columbite and gold.
Key to the map:
- Railway (Lagos-Minna): the western trunk line, Lagos → Abeokuta → Ibadan → Ilorin → Jebba → Minna.
- Limestone: Ewekoro (near Abeokuta, in the south-west).
- Coal: Enugu (south-east).
- Columbite: the Jos Plateau (central Nigeria).
- Gold: Ilesha (south-west).
(b) Method of mining columbite in Nigeria
Columbite occurs on the Jos Plateau as loose grains mixed with tin ore in the alluvial gravels ("wash") of the stream valleys, and is worked mainly by the open-cast (surface) method. The main steps are:
- Removal of the overburden: the soil and rock covering the mineral-bearing gravel are stripped off, at times loosened with dynamite and other explosives.
- Digging the ore: the exposed gravel is dug out using mechanical shovels, draglines and pick-axes, and a dragline gathers the ore-bearing gravel into heaps.
- Washing and concentration: powerful water jets from a monitor (hydraulic gun) are directed at the heaps to break them into a slurry, which is passed over sluice boxes and jigs; the heavy columbite and tin settle out while the lighter sand and mud are washed away.
- Drying and transport: the concentrate is dried and loaded onto trucks that convey it to the factory for smelting, and it is then conveyed by rail to the port for export.
(c) Three adverse effects of mining on the Jos Plateau (columbite/tin area)
- Loss of farmland and grazing land: stripping the overburden removes the topsoil and vegetation, leaving the land bare and infertile; farming and grazing land is destroyed and the agricultural labour force is reduced.
- Derelict land, mining ponds and health hazards: abandoned open pits fill with stagnant water, breeding mosquitoes and drowning livestock and children; dust and poor conditions cause health problems such as asthma and lung and heart disorders.
- Environmental degradation and pollution: loose spoil heaps are easily eroded, and silt and chemicals pollute streams and rivers, harming aquatic life and water supplies; whole settlements are displaced, sometimes leaving ghost towns behind.
Answer Details
(a) Outline map of Nigeria showing the railway line and mineral areas
The sketch map below shows the outline of Nigeria with (i) the western railway line running from Lagos northward through Abeokuta, Ibadan, Ilorin and Jebba to Minna, and (ii) one producing area each of limestone, coal, columbite and gold.
Key to the map:
- Railway (Lagos-Minna): the western trunk line, Lagos → Abeokuta → Ibadan → Ilorin → Jebba → Minna.
- Limestone: Ewekoro (near Abeokuta, in the south-west).
- Coal: Enugu (south-east).
- Columbite: the Jos Plateau (central Nigeria).
- Gold: Ilesha (south-west).
(b) Method of mining columbite in Nigeria
Columbite occurs on the Jos Plateau as loose grains mixed with tin ore in the alluvial gravels ("wash") of the stream valleys, and is worked mainly by the open-cast (surface) method. The main steps are:
- Removal of the overburden: the soil and rock covering the mineral-bearing gravel are stripped off, at times loosened with dynamite and other explosives.
- Digging the ore: the exposed gravel is dug out using mechanical shovels, draglines and pick-axes, and a dragline gathers the ore-bearing gravel into heaps.
- Washing and concentration: powerful water jets from a monitor (hydraulic gun) are directed at the heaps to break them into a slurry, which is passed over sluice boxes and jigs; the heavy columbite and tin settle out while the lighter sand and mud are washed away.
- Drying and transport: the concentrate is dried and loaded onto trucks that convey it to the factory for smelting, and it is then conveyed by rail to the port for export.
(c) Three adverse effects of mining on the Jos Plateau (columbite/tin area)
- Loss of farmland and grazing land: stripping the overburden removes the topsoil and vegetation, leaving the land bare and infertile; farming and grazing land is destroyed and the agricultural labour force is reduced.
- Derelict land, mining ponds and health hazards: abandoned open pits fill with stagnant water, breeding mosquitoes and drowning livestock and children; dust and poor conditions cause health problems such as asthma and lung and heart disorders.
- Environmental degradation and pollution: loose spoil heaps are easily eroded, and silt and chemicals pollute streams and rivers, harming aquatic life and water supplies; whole settlements are displaced, sometimes leaving ghost towns behind.
Question 7 Report
With the aid of diagrams, describe the appearance and mode of formation of any two of the following landforms: \
(a) Delta; (b) block mountain; (c) rock pedestal.
Appearance and mode of formation of two landforms (any two required):
(a) Delta
- Appearance: a low, flat, triangular or fan-shaped plain of alluvium built out at the mouth of a river, split by numerous branching channels called distributaries, with swamps and mud-flats between them. The name comes from the Greek letter delta (\(\Delta\)).
- Mode of formation: as a river reaches its mouth its velocity is checked by the standing water of a sea or lake, so it can no longer carry its load. The river deposits its sediment (coarse first, then fine). Where the sea is shallow, tides and currents are weak and the sediment load is large, deposition builds up faster than it can be removed. The deposits accumulate, force the river to divide into distributaries, and gradually extend the land seaward as a delta, for example the Nile and Niger deltas.
(b) Block mountain (horst)
- Appearance: an upstanding block of land with steep, often straight fault-scarp sides and a comparatively flat top, standing above the surrounding lowland; adjacent sunken blocks form rift valleys or basins.
- Mode of formation: tensional (or compressional) forces in the crust produce parallel faults (lines of fracture). When the land between two faults stands up while the blocks on either side sink, or the central block is pushed up, an upstanding block called a horst or block mountain results. Examples include the Ruwenzori and the Vosges.
(c) Rock pedestal (mushroom rock)
- Appearance: an isolated desert rock shaped like a mushroom or table, with a narrow, undercut base (stem) and a broader top.
- Mode of formation: in deserts, wind armed with sand grains blasts rock surfaces (abrasion). Because most sand is carried within about a metre of the ground, cutting is strongest near the base. The lower part is worn away faster than the top, and where softer rock lies below harder rock the base is undercut, leaving a narrow stem supporting a wider cap.
Answer Details
Appearance and mode of formation of two landforms (any two required):
(a) Delta
- Appearance: a low, flat, triangular or fan-shaped plain of alluvium built out at the mouth of a river, split by numerous branching channels called distributaries, with swamps and mud-flats between them. The name comes from the Greek letter delta (\(\Delta\)).
- Mode of formation: as a river reaches its mouth its velocity is checked by the standing water of a sea or lake, so it can no longer carry its load. The river deposits its sediment (coarse first, then fine). Where the sea is shallow, tides and currents are weak and the sediment load is large, deposition builds up faster than it can be removed. The deposits accumulate, force the river to divide into distributaries, and gradually extend the land seaward as a delta, for example the Nile and Niger deltas.
(b) Block mountain (horst)
- Appearance: an upstanding block of land with steep, often straight fault-scarp sides and a comparatively flat top, standing above the surrounding lowland; adjacent sunken blocks form rift valleys or basins.
- Mode of formation: tensional (or compressional) forces in the crust produce parallel faults (lines of fracture). When the land between two faults stands up while the blocks on either side sink, or the central block is pushed up, an upstanding block called a horst or block mountain results. Examples include the Ruwenzori and the Vosges.
(c) Rock pedestal (mushroom rock)
- Appearance: an isolated desert rock shaped like a mushroom or table, with a narrow, undercut base (stem) and a broader top.
- Mode of formation: in deserts, wind armed with sand grains blasts rock surfaces (abrasion). Because most sand is carried within about a metre of the ground, cutting is strongest near the base. The lower part is worn away faster than the top, and where softer rock lies below harder rock the base is undercut, leaving a narrow stem supporting a wider cap.
Question 8 Report
(a) Outline any five factors that contribute to the development of tourism in Nigeria.
(b) Highlight any five contributions of the tourist industry to the economic development of Nigeria.
(a) Five factors that contribute to the development of tourism in Nigeria:
- Attractive natural features: waterfalls, hills and highlands (Assop Falls, Obudu Ranch, Jos Plateau), beaches (Bar Beach, Badagry), and warm sunny climate attract visitors.
- Wildlife and game reserves: national parks such as Yankari and Kainji Lake attract tourists interested in wildlife and safari.
- Rich cultural heritage and festivals: the Argungu fishing festival, Osun-Osogbo, Durbar, Eyo and other festivals, plus historic sites and museums, draw tourists.
- Good transport and communication: airports, roads and improved communication make tourist centres accessible.
- Availability of accommodation and government support: hotels, and government provision of infrastructure and promotion through tourism boards, encourage the industry (peace and security are also essential).
(b) Five contributions of the tourist industry to economic development:
- Foreign exchange earnings: money spent by foreign tourists earns valuable foreign exchange for the country.
- Employment: tourism creates jobs in hotels, transport, catering, guiding and handicrafts.
- Development of infrastructure: roads, airports, water and electricity are provided to serve tourist centres, benefiting the whole area.
- Market for local goods and crafts: tourists buy local craft and food, boosting local industries and farmers' incomes.
- Government revenue and regional development: taxes, park fees and hotel charges add to government revenue, and tourism spreads development to rural and previously backward areas.
Answer Details
(a) Five factors that contribute to the development of tourism in Nigeria:
- Attractive natural features: waterfalls, hills and highlands (Assop Falls, Obudu Ranch, Jos Plateau), beaches (Bar Beach, Badagry), and warm sunny climate attract visitors.
- Wildlife and game reserves: national parks such as Yankari and Kainji Lake attract tourists interested in wildlife and safari.
- Rich cultural heritage and festivals: the Argungu fishing festival, Osun-Osogbo, Durbar, Eyo and other festivals, plus historic sites and museums, draw tourists.
- Good transport and communication: airports, roads and improved communication make tourist centres accessible.
- Availability of accommodation and government support: hotels, and government provision of infrastructure and promotion through tourism boards, encourage the industry (peace and security are also essential).
(b) Five contributions of the tourist industry to economic development:
- Foreign exchange earnings: money spent by foreign tourists earns valuable foreign exchange for the country.
- Employment: tourism creates jobs in hotels, transport, catering, guiding and handicrafts.
- Development of infrastructure: roads, airports, water and electricity are provided to serve tourist centres, benefiting the whole area.
- Market for local goods and crafts: tourists buy local craft and food, boosting local industries and farmers' incomes.
- Government revenue and regional development: taxes, park fees and hotel charges add to government revenue, and tourism spreads development to rural and previously backward areas.
Question 9 Report
(a) Name two light industries and two heavy industries
(b) Outline four factors which an industrialist must consider before locating an industry in a particular place
(c) Highlight four contributions of manufacturing industries to the economy of any country.
(a) Light and heavy industries:
- Two light industries: textile (garment) manufacturing; soap and cosmetics manufacturing (also food and beverage processing, electronics assembly).
- Two heavy industries: iron and steel manufacturing; cement manufacturing (also petroleum refining, shipbuilding, heavy machinery).
(b) Four factors an industrialist must consider before locating an industry:
- Availability of raw materials: the industry should be near its raw materials, especially where the material is bulky, heavy or perishable, to cut transport costs.
- Source of power/energy: a cheap and reliable supply of power (electricity, coal, oil, gas) is needed to run the machines.
- Supply of labour: nearness to a large pool of skilled and unskilled workers is important.
- Market: nearness to the market reduces the cost of distributing finished goods, especially bulky or fragile products.
- Transport and capital: good roads, rail, ports and adequate finance are also essential (water supply and land are further considerations).
(c) Four contributions of manufacturing industries to the economy:
- Employment: factories provide jobs for many people, raising incomes and standards of living.
- Increased national income and foreign exchange: manufactured goods add value and, when exported, earn foreign exchange for the country.
- Reduction of imports: local manufacturing of goods reduces dependence on imports and saves foreign exchange (import substitution).
- Development of infrastructure and other sectors: industry stimulates the growth of roads, power, banking and towns, and provides a market for agricultural and mineral raw materials.
Answer Details
(a) Light and heavy industries:
- Two light industries: textile (garment) manufacturing; soap and cosmetics manufacturing (also food and beverage processing, electronics assembly).
- Two heavy industries: iron and steel manufacturing; cement manufacturing (also petroleum refining, shipbuilding, heavy machinery).
(b) Four factors an industrialist must consider before locating an industry:
- Availability of raw materials: the industry should be near its raw materials, especially where the material is bulky, heavy or perishable, to cut transport costs.
- Source of power/energy: a cheap and reliable supply of power (electricity, coal, oil, gas) is needed to run the machines.
- Supply of labour: nearness to a large pool of skilled and unskilled workers is important.
- Market: nearness to the market reduces the cost of distributing finished goods, especially bulky or fragile products.
- Transport and capital: good roads, rail, ports and adequate finance are also essential (water supply and land are further considerations).
(c) Four contributions of manufacturing industries to the economy:
- Employment: factories provide jobs for many people, raising incomes and standards of living.
- Increased national income and foreign exchange: manufactured goods add value and, when exported, earn foreign exchange for the country.
- Reduction of imports: local manufacturing of goods reduces dependence on imports and saves foreign exchange (import substitution).
- Development of infrastructure and other sectors: industry stimulates the growth of roads, power, banking and towns, and provides a market for agricultural and mineral raw materials.
Question 10 Report
(a) Distinguish between local time and standard time.
(b) The local time of Town A, located on longitude 70°E and latitude 45°N, is 7.46 p.m., calculate the longitude of Town B on the same latitude when its local time is 5.30 a.m.
(a) Local time versus standard time
| Local time | Standard time |
|---|---|
| Time based on the position of the overhead sun for a particular meridian (longitude). | A single, uniform time adopted for a whole country or time zone. |
| It changes with every degree of longitude (4 minutes per degree). | It is fixed for the whole zone regardless of small changes in longitude. |
| Determined by a chosen central meridian's local time in each zone. | Based on a chosen standard meridian (often a multiple of 15 degrees). |
(b) Longitude of Town B
Latitude is the same, so it does not affect the calculation. Use the difference in local time between the two towns.
Town A (70 degrees E): local time = 7.46 p.m. = 19:46.
Town B: local time = 5.30 a.m. = 05:30.
Time difference:
\[ 19{:}46 - 05{:}30 = 14 \text{ hours } 16 \text{ minutes} \]Convert to minutes: \(14 \times 60 + 16 = 856\) minutes.
Since 1 degree of longitude = 4 minutes of time, the longitude difference is:
\[ \frac{856}{4} = 214^{\circ} \]Town B's local time (05:30) is earlier (behind) Town A's (19:46), so Town B lies to the west of Town A.
Longitude of B = \(70^{\circ}E - 214^{\circ}\).
\[ 70 - 214 = -144^{\circ} \]A negative value means we have crossed the 0 degree meridian into western longitudes:
\[ 144^{\circ}W \]Town B lies on longitude \(144^{\circ}W\).
Answer Details
(a) Local time versus standard time
| Local time | Standard time |
|---|---|
| Time based on the position of the overhead sun for a particular meridian (longitude). | A single, uniform time adopted for a whole country or time zone. |
| It changes with every degree of longitude (4 minutes per degree). | It is fixed for the whole zone regardless of small changes in longitude. |
| Determined by a chosen central meridian's local time in each zone. | Based on a chosen standard meridian (often a multiple of 15 degrees). |
(b) Longitude of Town B
Latitude is the same, so it does not affect the calculation. Use the difference in local time between the two towns.
Town A (70 degrees E): local time = 7.46 p.m. = 19:46.
Town B: local time = 5.30 a.m. = 05:30.
Time difference:
\[ 19{:}46 - 05{:}30 = 14 \text{ hours } 16 \text{ minutes} \]Convert to minutes: \(14 \times 60 + 16 = 856\) minutes.
Since 1 degree of longitude = 4 minutes of time, the longitude difference is:
\[ \frac{856}{4} = 214^{\circ} \]Town B's local time (05:30) is earlier (behind) Town A's (19:46), so Town B lies to the west of Town A.
Longitude of B = \(70^{\circ}E - 214^{\circ}\).
\[ 70 - 214 = -144^{\circ} \]A negative value means we have crossed the 0 degree meridian into western longitudes:
\[ 144^{\circ}W \]Town B lies on longitude \(144^{\circ}W\).
Question 11 Report
(a)(i)Differentiate between Erosion and Mass movement
(ii) Name two features each of river erosion and mass movement.
(b) Describe the factors that affect mass movement.
(a)(i) Difference between Erosion and Mass movement:
Erosion is the wearing away and removal of rock waste from one place to another by a moving transporting agent such as running water, wind, ice or waves. Mass movement (mass wasting) is the down-slope movement of rock waste and soil under the direct pull of gravity, without a separate transporting agent carrying the material away.
(a)(ii) Two features each:
- Features of river erosion: waterfalls and rapids; V-shaped valleys and gorges (also potholes, river cliffs).
- Features of mass movement: landslides; soil creep terracettes (also scree/talus slopes, slumps, mudflows).
(b) Factors that affect mass movement:
- Gradient (steepness) of slope: the steeper the slope, the stronger the pull of gravity down-slope and the faster and more likely the movement.
- Water content: water adds weight and lubricates the material, reducing friction; saturated soil moves easily as mudflows and slumps, so heavy rain triggers movement.
- Nature of the material: loose, unconsolidated or weathered material moves more readily than solid, coherent rock; the size and cohesion of particles matter.
- Vegetation cover: plant roots bind the soil and hold it in place, so bare slopes are far more prone to movement than well-vegetated ones.
- Underlying rock structure: where rock layers dip in the same direction as the slope, and along planes of weakness (joints, bedding), sliding is encouraged.
- Human activity and earth tremors: undercutting slopes for roads or building, overloading, and vibrations from earthquakes or blasting can set off movement.
Answer Details
(a)(i) Difference between Erosion and Mass movement:
Erosion is the wearing away and removal of rock waste from one place to another by a moving transporting agent such as running water, wind, ice or waves. Mass movement (mass wasting) is the down-slope movement of rock waste and soil under the direct pull of gravity, without a separate transporting agent carrying the material away.
(a)(ii) Two features each:
- Features of river erosion: waterfalls and rapids; V-shaped valleys and gorges (also potholes, river cliffs).
- Features of mass movement: landslides; soil creep terracettes (also scree/talus slopes, slumps, mudflows).
(b) Factors that affect mass movement:
- Gradient (steepness) of slope: the steeper the slope, the stronger the pull of gravity down-slope and the faster and more likely the movement.
- Water content: water adds weight and lubricates the material, reducing friction; saturated soil moves easily as mudflows and slumps, so heavy rain triggers movement.
- Nature of the material: loose, unconsolidated or weathered material moves more readily than solid, coherent rock; the size and cohesion of particles matter.
- Vegetation cover: plant roots bind the soil and hold it in place, so bare slopes are far more prone to movement than well-vegetated ones.
- Underlying rock structure: where rock layers dip in the same direction as the slope, and along planes of weakness (joints, bedding), sliding is encouraged.
- Human activity and earth tremors: undercutting slopes for roads or building, overloading, and vibrations from earthquakes or blasting can set off movement.
Question 12 Report
(a) State four advantages of rural—urban migration
(b) Describe four effects of rural—urban migration on the urban areas
(c) Highlight two measures that can be taken to stop rural—urban migration.
(a) Four advantages of rural-urban migration:
- Supply of labour to towns: migrants provide the workforce needed for industries, construction and services in the urban areas.
- Higher incomes and remittances: migrants earn better wages and send money home, improving the welfare of rural families.
- Reduction of pressure on rural land: movement of people out of villages reduces population pressure on farmland and other rural resources.
- Acquisition of skills and exposure: migrants acquire education, skills and new ideas in the town, some of which they later transfer to the rural areas.
(b) Four effects of rural-urban migration on urban areas:
- Overcrowding and housing shortage: rapid population increase leads to congestion and the growth of slums and shanty settlements.
- Unemployment and underemployment: more people arrive than the town can employ, raising unemployment.
- Pressure on services and infrastructure: water, electricity, schools, hospitals, roads and sanitation become overstretched.
- Increase in social problems: crime, prostitution, traffic congestion and environmental pollution rise (though the labour force and market also expand).
(c) Two measures to check rural-urban migration:
- Rural development: provide the countryside with amenities such as good roads, electricity, water, schools, hospitals and industries so that life there is attractive.
- Creation of rural employment and improved agriculture: establish agro-based industries and modernise farming so that jobs and good incomes exist in the villages (siting of industries and administrative functions in rural areas).
Answer Details
(a) Four advantages of rural-urban migration:
- Supply of labour to towns: migrants provide the workforce needed for industries, construction and services in the urban areas.
- Higher incomes and remittances: migrants earn better wages and send money home, improving the welfare of rural families.
- Reduction of pressure on rural land: movement of people out of villages reduces population pressure on farmland and other rural resources.
- Acquisition of skills and exposure: migrants acquire education, skills and new ideas in the town, some of which they later transfer to the rural areas.
(b) Four effects of rural-urban migration on urban areas:
- Overcrowding and housing shortage: rapid population increase leads to congestion and the growth of slums and shanty settlements.
- Unemployment and underemployment: more people arrive than the town can employ, raising unemployment.
- Pressure on services and infrastructure: water, electricity, schools, hospitals, roads and sanitation become overstretched.
- Increase in social problems: crime, prostitution, traffic congestion and environmental pollution rise (though the labour force and market also expand).
(c) Two measures to check rural-urban migration:
- Rural development: provide the countryside with amenities such as good roads, electricity, water, schools, hospitals and industries so that life there is attractive.
- Creation of rural employment and improved agriculture: establish agro-based industries and modernise farming so that jobs and good incomes exist in the villages (siting of industries and administrative functions in rural areas).
Question 13 Report
Study the map extract on a scale of 1:100,000 and answer the following questions: (a) Draw an outline of the map on a scale of 1:300,000. On your outline, show and name:
(i) the settlement of Lariski and Wuna Dole;
(ii) River Lakau and its direction of flow (use an arrow);
(iii) 1,100ft contour.
(b) Calculate the actual distance in kilometres along the railway line from the bridge ne Zangoma to the bridge along River Gaji
(c) (i) Using evidence from the map, state any three occupations of the people in the mapped area
(ii) Identify with reasons, the most important settlement on the map.
(a) Outline of the map reduced to a scale of 1:300,000
The required scale (1:300,000) is one-third of the original scale (1:100,000). Therefore every length taken from the extract is drawn one-third of its size, while the shape, orientation and relative positions are kept exactly the same. The original frame of 36.6 cm is reduced to \(\tfrac{1}{3}\times 36.6 = 12.2\text{ cm}\), so the outline is a square of about 12.2 cm by 12.2 cm. On this outline the settlements of Lariski and Wuna Dole are each marked with a small circle and named, River Lakau is drawn as a single line with an arrow showing its direction of flow (downstream, from higher to lower ground towards its confluence), and the 1,100 ft contour is traced and labelled.
(b) Actual distance along the railway line from the bridge near Zangoma to the bridge along River Gaji
A thread is laid along the railway line, following every bend from the bridge near Zangoma to the bridge along River Gaji, then straightened against the linear scale and read off.
- Map measurement = 25 cm
- Map scale = 1 : 100,000, so 1 cm on the map represents 100,000 cm = 1 km on the ground.
The actual distance along the railway line is 25 km.
(c)(i) Three occupations of the people (with map evidence)
| Occupation | Evidence on the map |
| Farming | Presence of scattered areas of cultivation |
| Grazing / rearing of animals | Presence of savanna and scrub vegetation |
| Trade and commerce | Presence of the market at Bara |
(Other supportable occupations include teaching, shown by the schools; transportation, shown by the roads and railway; and fishing, shown by the many rivers.)
(c)(ii) Most important settlement
Bara is the most important settlement in the mapped area. This is because it has a market and a school, and it is a nodal settlement where several roads and the railway line meet. These functions make it the chief centre of trade, services and communication in the area, so it attracts and serves the surrounding population more than any other settlement.
Answer Details
(a) Outline of the map reduced to a scale of 1:300,000
The required scale (1:300,000) is one-third of the original scale (1:100,000). Therefore every length taken from the extract is drawn one-third of its size, while the shape, orientation and relative positions are kept exactly the same. The original frame of 36.6 cm is reduced to \(\tfrac{1}{3}\times 36.6 = 12.2\text{ cm}\), so the outline is a square of about 12.2 cm by 12.2 cm. On this outline the settlements of Lariski and Wuna Dole are each marked with a small circle and named, River Lakau is drawn as a single line with an arrow showing its direction of flow (downstream, from higher to lower ground towards its confluence), and the 1,100 ft contour is traced and labelled.
(b) Actual distance along the railway line from the bridge near Zangoma to the bridge along River Gaji
A thread is laid along the railway line, following every bend from the bridge near Zangoma to the bridge along River Gaji, then straightened against the linear scale and read off.
- Map measurement = 25 cm
- Map scale = 1 : 100,000, so 1 cm on the map represents 100,000 cm = 1 km on the ground.
The actual distance along the railway line is 25 km.
(c)(i) Three occupations of the people (with map evidence)
| Occupation | Evidence on the map |
| Farming | Presence of scattered areas of cultivation |
| Grazing / rearing of animals | Presence of savanna and scrub vegetation |
| Trade and commerce | Presence of the market at Bara |
(Other supportable occupations include teaching, shown by the schools; transportation, shown by the roads and railway; and fishing, shown by the many rivers.)
(c)(ii) Most important settlement
Bara is the most important settlement in the mapped area. This is because it has a market and a school, and it is a nodal settlement where several roads and the railway line meet. These functions make it the chief centre of trade, services and communication in the area, so it attracts and serves the surrounding population more than any other settlement.
Question 14 Report
(a) Draw an outline map ofAfrica. On the map show and name:
(i) one major river that drains into the Mediterranean sea;
(ii) one major river that crosses the Equator twice;
(iii) One major river that drains into the Indian oce
(iv) One rift valley lake;
(v) One man-made lake;
(vi) One lake crossed by the Equator
(b) Highlight five factors that limit the use of African rivers.
(a) Map identification
As shown on the map above, the required features are:
- River Nile, which flows northwards and drains into the Mediterranean Sea through its delta in Egypt.
- River Congo, which crosses the Equator twice as it flows through the Congo Basin before entering the Atlantic Ocean.
- River Zambezi, which flows eastwards through southern Africa and drains into the Indian Ocean.
- Lake Tanganyika, a long, narrow rift valley lake found in the East African Rift Valley.
- Lake Volta, a man-made lake in Ghana, formed following the construction of the Akosombo Dam on the River Volta.
- Lake Victoria, the lake crossed by the Equator. It is shared mainly by Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania.
(b) Five factors that limit the use of African rivers
- Rapids, cataracts and waterfalls: These interrupt navigation and make many river sections unsuitable for the movement of boats and ships.
- Seasonal fluctuation in water volume: During the dry season, some rivers become shallow, while floods in the rainy season may make transport dangerous.
- Silting: Deposition of sand, mud and other materials at river mouths and channels reduces their depth and obstructs navigation.
- Water weeds and water hyacinth: These may block waterways, hinder boats and fishing activities, and reduce the efficiency of hydroelectric and irrigation schemes.
- Shallow and narrow channels: Many African rivers cannot accommodate large vessels because their channels are too shallow or narrow.
- Heavy load of suspended materials and debris: Logs, sand and other materials carried by rivers can obstruct navigation and damage boats.
- Sparse population along some river valleys: Where few people live near a river, there may be little demand for river transport or insufficient labour and markets to support its development.
- Lack of capital and infrastructure: Many countries lack adequate funds for dredging channels, constructing ports, building dams and maintaining navigation facilities.
- International river problems: Some rivers pass through several countries, and lack of cooperation between these countries may delay their development and use.
Answer Details
(a) Map identification
As shown on the map above, the required features are:
- River Nile, which flows northwards and drains into the Mediterranean Sea through its delta in Egypt.
- River Congo, which crosses the Equator twice as it flows through the Congo Basin before entering the Atlantic Ocean.
- River Zambezi, which flows eastwards through southern Africa and drains into the Indian Ocean.
- Lake Tanganyika, a long, narrow rift valley lake found in the East African Rift Valley.
- Lake Volta, a man-made lake in Ghana, formed following the construction of the Akosombo Dam on the River Volta.
- Lake Victoria, the lake crossed by the Equator. It is shared mainly by Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania.
(b) Five factors that limit the use of African rivers
- Rapids, cataracts and waterfalls: These interrupt navigation and make many river sections unsuitable for the movement of boats and ships.
- Seasonal fluctuation in water volume: During the dry season, some rivers become shallow, while floods in the rainy season may make transport dangerous.
- Silting: Deposition of sand, mud and other materials at river mouths and channels reduces their depth and obstructs navigation.
- Water weeds and water hyacinth: These may block waterways, hinder boats and fishing activities, and reduce the efficiency of hydroelectric and irrigation schemes.
- Shallow and narrow channels: Many African rivers cannot accommodate large vessels because their channels are too shallow or narrow.
- Heavy load of suspended materials and debris: Logs, sand and other materials carried by rivers can obstruct navigation and damage boats.
- Sparse population along some river valleys: Where few people live near a river, there may be little demand for river transport or insufficient labour and markets to support its development.
- Lack of capital and infrastructure: Many countries lack adequate funds for dredging channels, constructing ports, building dams and maintaining navigation facilities.
- International river problems: Some rivers pass through several countries, and lack of cooperation between these countries may delay their development and use.
Question 15 Report
(a) In what four ways has the physical setting of the Sokoto plains of Nigeria influenced the types of econc activities in the region?
(b) Highlight any four problems of development facing this region.
(c) two ways in which any of the problems in (b) above could be solved.
(a) Four ways the physical setting of the Sokoto plains has influenced economic activities:
- Extensive flat plains and fertile fadama (flood-plain) soils have encouraged crop farming, especially of guinea corn, millet, rice, wheat and vegetables, particularly in the river valleys.
- The semi-arid (Sudan/Sahel) climate with a long dry season and open grassland favours livestock rearing (cattle, sheep, goats) and has made the area a leading grazing and cattle-trading region.
- The seasonal rivers (Sokoto and Rima) and their fadama land support dry-season irrigation farming and fishing.
- The dry climate and abundant sunshine favour the growing of cotton and groundnuts, which feed local textile weaving, dyeing, tanning and other agro-based crafts.
(b) Four problems of development facing the region:
- Unreliable rainfall and drought: the low and variable rainfall causes crop failure and shortage of water for people and animals.
- Poor soils and desertification: in places soils are thin and sandy, and advancing desert and soil erosion reduce farmland.
- Inadequate infrastructure: shortage of good roads, electricity, water supply and industries limits development.
- Population pressure and overgrazing: heavy grazing and farming degrade the land, and there is limited employment outside agriculture.
(c) Two ways any of these problems could be solved:
- Provision of irrigation and dams (for example the Bakolori and Goronyo dams) to store water and support farming through the dry season, tackling the water-shortage problem.
- Afforestation and shelter-belts to check desert encroachment and soil erosion, and improved farming methods to conserve the soil.
Answer Details
(a) Four ways the physical setting of the Sokoto plains has influenced economic activities:
- Extensive flat plains and fertile fadama (flood-plain) soils have encouraged crop farming, especially of guinea corn, millet, rice, wheat and vegetables, particularly in the river valleys.
- The semi-arid (Sudan/Sahel) climate with a long dry season and open grassland favours livestock rearing (cattle, sheep, goats) and has made the area a leading grazing and cattle-trading region.
- The seasonal rivers (Sokoto and Rima) and their fadama land support dry-season irrigation farming and fishing.
- The dry climate and abundant sunshine favour the growing of cotton and groundnuts, which feed local textile weaving, dyeing, tanning and other agro-based crafts.
(b) Four problems of development facing the region:
- Unreliable rainfall and drought: the low and variable rainfall causes crop failure and shortage of water for people and animals.
- Poor soils and desertification: in places soils are thin and sandy, and advancing desert and soil erosion reduce farmland.
- Inadequate infrastructure: shortage of good roads, electricity, water supply and industries limits development.
- Population pressure and overgrazing: heavy grazing and farming degrade the land, and there is limited employment outside agriculture.
(c) Two ways any of these problems could be solved:
- Provision of irrigation and dams (for example the Bakolori and Goronyo dams) to store water and support farming through the dry season, tackling the water-shortage problem.
- Afforestation and shelter-belts to check desert encroachment and soil erosion, and improved farming methods to conserve the soil.
Question 16 Report
(a) Describe the surveyor's chain
(b) Outline any three problems that could be encountered in the use of the surveyor's chain.
(a) The surveyor's chain
The surveyor's (Gunter's) chain is an instrument used for measuring horizontal distances on the ground during land survey. It is made up of 100 links of galvanised steel wire joined together by small rings, with a brass handle at each end. Its standard length is 66 feet (about 20.1 metres), so that each link is 7.92 inches long. Brass tags or markers are fixed at every 10 links to make counting easier, and it is used together with a set of metal arrows (pins) for marking the ends of each chain length and ranging poles for keeping the line straight.
(b) Three problems in using the surveyor's chain
- Sagging and stretching: the chain may sag in the middle or stretch after long use, giving inaccurate (usually too long) measurements.
- Difficulty on rough or sloping ground: hills, valleys, rivers, bushes and obstacles make it hard to lay the chain horizontally and straight, causing errors.
- It is slow and needs many people: chaining is tedious, requires at least two people (leader and follower), and mistakes in counting chains or arrows lead to errors.
Other problems include kinking or breaking of links, rusting of the steel, and errors from failing to keep the line truly straight.
Answer Details
(a) The surveyor's chain
The surveyor's (Gunter's) chain is an instrument used for measuring horizontal distances on the ground during land survey. It is made up of 100 links of galvanised steel wire joined together by small rings, with a brass handle at each end. Its standard length is 66 feet (about 20.1 metres), so that each link is 7.92 inches long. Brass tags or markers are fixed at every 10 links to make counting easier, and it is used together with a set of metal arrows (pins) for marking the ends of each chain length and ranging poles for keeping the line straight.
(b) Three problems in using the surveyor's chain
- Sagging and stretching: the chain may sag in the middle or stretch after long use, giving inaccurate (usually too long) measurements.
- Difficulty on rough or sloping ground: hills, valleys, rivers, bushes and obstacles make it hard to lay the chain horizontally and straight, causing errors.
- It is slow and needs many people: chaining is tedious, requires at least two people (leader and follower), and mistakes in counting chains or arrows lead to errors.
Other problems include kinking or breaking of links, rusting of the steel, and errors from failing to keep the line truly straight.
Question 17 Report
(a) Differentiate between weather and climate
(b) Name the instruments used in measuring the following weather elements:
(i) pressure; (ii) sunshine; (iii) rainfall; (iv) wind speed.
(c) Explain how wind speed is measured and recorded.
(a) Difference between weather and climate:
Weather is the condition of the atmosphere of a place at a particular time or over a short period (a day or a few days), described in terms of temperature, rainfall, wind, pressure, humidity and sunshine; it changes from hour to hour and day to day. Climate is the average weather conditions of a place taken over a long period, usually not less than 35 years. In short, weather is short-term and changeable while climate is the long-term average.
(b) Instruments used to measure the weather elements:
| Element | Instrument |
|---|---|
| (i) Pressure | Barometer (mercury or aneroid); barograph for a continuous record |
| (ii) Sunshine | Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder |
| (iii) Rainfall | Rain gauge |
| (iv) Wind speed | Anemometer |
(c) How wind speed is measured and recorded:
Wind speed is measured with a cup anemometer. It consists of three or four hollow hemispherical cups mounted on horizontal arms fixed to a vertical spindle. The wind catches the open faces of the cups and makes them rotate; the stronger the wind, the faster they spin. The rotating spindle is connected to a dial or counter which records the number of rotations. From the number of turns in a given time the wind speed is read off in kilometres per hour, metres per second or knots. The instrument is mounted on a mast in an open, exposed place, well clear of buildings and trees, so that the free flow of air is not obstructed. Readings are taken at regular intervals and entered in the weather register.
Answer Details
(a) Difference between weather and climate:
Weather is the condition of the atmosphere of a place at a particular time or over a short period (a day or a few days), described in terms of temperature, rainfall, wind, pressure, humidity and sunshine; it changes from hour to hour and day to day. Climate is the average weather conditions of a place taken over a long period, usually not less than 35 years. In short, weather is short-term and changeable while climate is the long-term average.
(b) Instruments used to measure the weather elements:
| Element | Instrument |
|---|---|
| (i) Pressure | Barometer (mercury or aneroid); barograph for a continuous record |
| (ii) Sunshine | Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder |
| (iii) Rainfall | Rain gauge |
| (iv) Wind speed | Anemometer |
(c) How wind speed is measured and recorded:
Wind speed is measured with a cup anemometer. It consists of three or four hollow hemispherical cups mounted on horizontal arms fixed to a vertical spindle. The wind catches the open faces of the cups and makes them rotate; the stronger the wind, the faster they spin. The rotating spindle is connected to a dial or counter which records the number of rotations. From the number of turns in a given time the wind speed is read off in kilometres per hour, metres per second or knots. The instrument is mounted on a mast in an open, exposed place, well clear of buildings and trees, so that the free flow of air is not obstructed. Readings are taken at regular intervals and entered in the weather register.
