WAEC SSCE - Government - 2015 (Essay)

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(a)(i) Meaning of the term "military". The military refers to the organised armed forces of a state, comprising the army, the navy and the air force, which are established and trained to defend the country against external aggression and to maintain internal security. It is a disciplined, hierarchical institution built on the chain of command and obedience to orders.

(a)(ii) Meaning of a military coup d'etat. A military coup d'etat is the sudden, forceful and unconstitutional seizure of political power from a legitimate government by a section of the armed forces. It is an illegal change of government carried out by soldiers, usually by force or the threat of force, in violation of the constitution.

(b) Three basic features of military rule.

1. Rule by decree: The military governs by issuing decrees and edicts rather than by laws passed by an elected legislature, and these decrees are supreme and often cannot be questioned in the courts.
2. Suspension of the constitution and democratic institutions: The constitution is suspended in part or in whole, elected bodies are dissolved, and political parties and open political activity are banned.
3. Centralisation of power and a rigid command structure: Executive and legislative powers are fused in a Supreme Military Council or Ruling Council, and government operates through the hierarchical chain of command, with authority flowing from the top downwards.

Other features include the curtailment of fundamental human rights and the use of force to enforce obedience.

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The Action Group (AG), founded in 1951 by Chief Obafemi Awolowo, controlled the Western Region during the years of self-government. Five of its achievements are outlined below.

1. Free primary education: The AG government introduced the free universal primary education scheme in the Western Region in 1955, greatly expanding school enrolment and literacy.
2. Free health services: It provided free medical services, especially for children, and built hospitals and health centres across the region.
3. Infrastructural development: It embarked on the construction of roads, and established landmark projects such as the first television station in Africa (WNTV, 1959) and the Cocoa House in Ibadan.
4. Agricultural and economic development: It promoted cash-crop farming, established farm settlements and marketing arrangements, and used cocoa revenue to fund development, raising the standard of living in the region.
5. Effective and progressive administration: It ran an efficient, welfare-oriented regional government that served as a model of good governance and set the pace in social services among the regions.

The party also played a leading role in the nationalist struggle by pressing vigorously for independence and for a truly federal constitution.

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(a) Meaning of constitutionalism

Constitutionalism is the doctrine or practice by which the powers of government and the conduct of rulers are limited by, and exercised in strict accordance with, the provisions of the constitution. It means limited government under the rule of law, where those in authority govern according to established rules rather than by arbitrary personal will, and where the rights of citizens are protected against abuse of power.

(b) Four factors that can promote constitutionalism

1. Existence of the rule of law: When all persons and authorities are subject to the law and equal before it, government power is kept within lawful limits.
2. Separation of powers and checks and balances: Dividing power among the legislature, executive and judiciary, so that each checks the others, prevents the concentration and abuse of power.
3. Independence of the judiciary: An impartial and independent judiciary can interpret the constitution, curb excesses of government and protect citizens' rights.
4. Free press and enlightened citizenry: A free press and politically aware citizens expose abuse of power and hold rulers accountable.
5. Free and fair periodic elections: Regular elections allow the people to change bad leaders and compel governments to act within the constitution.
6. Existence of an entrenched written constitution and fundamental rights: A clear, supreme constitution that guarantees fundamental human rights provides a firm standard against which government action is measured.

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(a) Definition of parliamentarianism. Parliamentarianism (the parliamentary or cabinet system of government) is a system in which the executive is drawn from and is directly responsible to the legislature (parliament). The head of government is the Prime Minister, who together with the cabinet remains a member of parliament and stays in office only so long as he retains the confidence of the majority in parliament. There is a fusion of the executive and legislative arms, and the offices of head of state and head of government are separate.

(b) Four differences between the parliamentary and presidential systems.

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(a) Five officials used in the conduct of an election on polling day, and (b) one function of each.

1. Presiding Officer: He is in charge of a polling station. His function is to take custody of the electoral materials, conduct the poll in an orderly manner, and announce and record the result at that station.
2. Poll (Polling) Clerk: He assists the presiding officer. His function is to check voters against the register, mark their names and issue ballot papers to accredited voters.
3. Ballot Box Attendant / Voting-Point Officer: His function is to guard the ballot box and ensure that each accredited voter drops only one ballot paper into the correct box after voting.
4. Security Officer (Police): His function is to maintain law and order at the polling station and to protect the voters, officials and electoral materials against violence or disruption.
5. Party Agent (Polling Agent): Appointed by a political party, his function is to observe the conduct of the poll on behalf of his party and to safeguard its interest by ensuring that the exercise is free and fair.

Other officials that may be present include electoral observers, whose function is to monitor the election and report on whether it was free and fair.

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(a) Definition of public opinion. Public opinion is the collective view, belief or attitude held and expressed by a considerable number of citizens on a matter of public interest at a particular time. It is the aggregate of the opinions of the generality of the people on an issue affecting the community, and government in a democracy is expected to take it into account.

(b) Three ways by which public opinion can be formed.

1. Through the mass media: Newspapers, radio, television and the internet report events and comment on issues, thereby shaping the views of the public.
2. Through political parties and pressure groups: These organisations articulate positions on public questions and mobilise citizens to accept and support their views.
3. Through discussion and interaction in society: Debates in schools, religious bodies, town-hall meetings, markets and social gatherings, as well as the influence of opinion leaders, help to form and crystallise public opinion.

(c) Three ways public opinion can be encouraged in my country.

1. Guaranteeing freedom of expression and of the press: When citizens and the media are free to speak and publish without fear, opinions can be freely formed and expressed.
2. Promoting mass education and political enlightenment: An educated and informed citizenry is better able to understand issues and to form sound opinions.
3. Providing avenues for expression such as free elections, public hearings and opinion polls: Regular elections, referenda, public hearings and the use of opinion surveys give the people channels through which their views can be gathered and made to count.

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(a) Meaning of separation of powers. Separation of powers is the constitutional principle, associated with the French writer Baron de Montesquieu, which holds that the three powers of government, namely the legislative, the executive and the judicial, should be exercised by three separate and distinct organs, and that the same persons should not control more than one of them. Its aim is to prevent the concentration of power in one hand and so protect the liberty of the citizen. It is usually accompanied by a system of checks and balances.

(b)(i) Operation under the Presidential System.

1. The three arms are largely separate. The President and his ministers head the executive, the legislature makes the laws, and the judiciary interprets them.
2. Membership is separate: a person cannot be a member of the executive and the legislature at the same time. The President is not a member of the legislature.
3. The President is separately elected and holds office for a fixed term; he is not removable by an ordinary vote of the legislature except through impeachment.
4. The arms check one another: the legislature confirms appointments and can impeach the President; the President can veto bills; the judiciary can declare acts unconstitutional. Nigeria and the United States use this system.

(b)(ii) Operation under the Cabinet (Parliamentary) System.

1. There is a fusion rather than a strict separation of the executive and the legislature. Ministers are drawn from and remain members of the legislature.
2. The Prime Minister and cabinet are part of parliament and are collectively responsible to it; parliament can remove them through a vote of no confidence.
3. The head of state (monarch or ceremonial president) is separate from the head of government (Prime Minister), and executive power in practice lies with the cabinet.
4. Only the judiciary remains clearly separate and independent; the separation between the executive and the legislature is therefore weak.

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External relations refer to the way a country conducts its dealings and foreign policy towards other states. The following factors determine the external relations of West African countries:

1. National interest: Every state pursues foreign relations that protect and promote its own survival, security and economic well-being. A West African country will befriend states that serve its interest and keep distance from those that threaten it.
2. Economic considerations: The need for trade, foreign investment, aid, loans, markets for exports and sources of imports strongly shapes relations. Poorer states often cultivate ties with wealthy nations and donor institutions.
3. Ideology: The political and economic philosophy of a country (capitalist, socialist or non-aligned) influences the friends it chooses. During the Cold War, ideology divided alliances sharply.
4. Geographical location and contiguity: Shared borders create relations of both cooperation and tension. Neighbouring states must manage boundary issues, migration, cross-border trade and security.
5. Historical and colonial ties: Former colonies tend to maintain close links with their former colonial masters (for example, Anglophone states with Britain and Francophone states with France) through language, trade and defence.
6. Military strength and security needs: The desire for defence, arms and protection against external aggression or internal insurgency drives states to seek allies and enter military pacts.
7. Membership of international organisations: Belonging to bodies such as ECOWAS, the African Union, the United Nations and the Commonwealth obliges a state to align its conduct with the aims and charters of those organisations.
8. Domestic public opinion: The feelings and pressures of the citizens and interest groups at home can influence the direction of foreign policy.
9. Quality of leadership and personality of leaders: The vision, ideology and diplomatic skill of the head of government shape the tone and priorities of external relations.
10. Racial and cultural affinity: Common race, religion, language and culture (such as African brotherhood or the Islamic bond) can draw states together.
11. Principle of reciprocity: States respond to others in like manner; friendliness is repaid with friendliness and hostility with hostility.

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The Secretary of State for the Colonies was the British Cabinet minister in London who was responsible for the administration of the colonies. He was the link between the colonial territories and the imperial government. Five of his functions are highlighted below.

1. Overall supervision of colonial administration: He was in charge of the Colonial Office and exercised general control over the government of all the colonies on behalf of the British Crown and Parliament.
2. Formulation of colonial policy: He initiated and directed the broad policies to be applied in the colonies and issued instructions to the Governors on how the territories were to be run.
3. Appointment and supervision of Governors and senior officials: He recommended the appointment of Governors and other senior colonial officers and supervised their conduct, receiving their reports and giving them directives.
4. Approval and review of colonial laws: He examined the ordinances passed in the colonies and could approve, amend or disallow them; his consent was required for important legislation.
5. Representation of colonial matters in the British Parliament: He answered questions and defended colonial policy and expenditure in Parliament, and served as the channel through which colonial affairs reached the imperial government.

He also controlled colonial finances by approving budgets and grants, and heard appeals and petitions from the colonies.

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(a) Three newspapers formed by nationalists in Nigeria after the Second World War.

1. The West African Pilot, founded by Nnamdi Azikiwe.
2. The Nigerian Tribune, founded by Obafemi Awolowo.
3. The Daily Comet (associated with the Zik Group of newspapers).

Other examples include the Southern Nigeria Defender and the Eastern Nigeria Guardian, also part of the Zik press.

(b) Four roles played by local newspapers in the struggle against colonial rule.

1. Political education and enlightenment: They educated the people about their rights, about self-government and about the evils of colonial rule, thereby awakening national consciousness.
2. Mobilisation of the people: They rallied and united Nigerians behind the nationalist movement and its leaders, and helped to popularise the political parties.
3. Criticism and exposure of colonial injustice: They criticised the policies and abuses of the colonial government and exposed acts of oppression and discrimination against Nigerians.
4. Provision of a platform for nationalist views: They gave the nationalists a medium through which to publish their demands, articulate grievances and press for reforms and eventual independence.

They also fostered a sense of common identity among the diverse peoples of Nigeria, strengthening the demand for one nation.