WAEC SSCE - Geography - 1994 (Essay)

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(a) Map of Africa showing rivers and hydro-electric power stations

A drawn map of Africa is required, locating and naming three rivers used for HEP and the power station on each:

(Other acceptable examples: River Niger with Kainji, and the Congo with Inga.)

(b) Three factors that favour the generation of hydro-electric power in Africa

1. Presence of large, permanent rivers with a steady, regular flow of water throughout the year (fed by heavy equatorial and tropical rainfall).
2. Suitable relief: waterfalls, rapids, gorges and steep gradients (for example where rivers cross plateau edges) that give a strong head of water and good dam sites.
3. Hard, impermeable rock in narrow valleys that provide firm, watertight foundations for building high dams and reservoirs.

(Also: availability of capital/investment and nearby demand for power.)

(c) Importance of hydro-electric power projects to Tropical African countries

• They supply cheap, reliable electricity for homes, industries and towns, promoting industrialization.
• The reservoirs provide water for irrigation, expanding agriculture, and for domestic and industrial water supply and fishing.
• They help in flood control and improve navigation on the rivers.
• They create employment, encourage the growth of towns, and reduce dependence on imported fuels, saving foreign exchange, while lakes formed attract tourism/recreation.

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(i) Climatic belt of each station

• Station A (13°N): total rainfall 72.8 cm with a single maximum (August) and about six dry months. This is the Sudan / tropical continental (savanna) belt of the far north.
• Station B (7°N): total rainfall 123.0 cm with a double maximum (June and September) and a short August dip. This is the tropical wet / Guinea (southern) belt near the coast.

(ii) Main climatic characteristics

Station A: high temperatures with a large annual range (26 to 33°C, range 7°C, hottest just before the rains in April); a short single rainy season (June to September) and a long, marked dry season; moderate total rainfall (about 728 mm). Skies are clear for much of the year and the harmattan is strongly felt.

Station B: uniformly high temperatures with a small annual range (23 to 29°C, range 6°C); a long rainy season with two maxima (the "little dry season" showing as the August dip); high humidity and a large total (about 1230 mm). The climate is hot and wet for most of the year.

(iii) Differences in agricultural practice

• Station A (short, single wet season, drier): suited to drought-tolerant crops and grains such as millet, guinea-corn (sorghum), groundnuts, cotton and cowpeas, usually one crop per year timed to the rains; the open grassland also supports livestock rearing (cattle, sheep, goats), and irrigation is often needed.
• Station B (long, double wet season, wetter): suited to root and tree crops needing much moisture such as yam, cassava, cocoa, oil palm, plantain, rubber and kola; the two rainfall peaks allow two planting seasons a year, and the heavier rain favours arable crop farming rather than large-scale grazing (tsetse fly also limits cattle).

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(a) Meaning of migration and three forms it may take

Migration is the movement of people from one place (their place of origin) to another (their destination) with the intention of settling there, either permanently or for a fairly long period. Three forms it may take are:

1. Internal migration: movement within the same country, for example rural-urban migration (from villages to towns) or rural-rural migration.
2. International migration: movement across national boundaries from one country to another (emigration and immigration).
3. Seasonal/temporary migration: movement for only part of the year or a limited period, such as nomadic herders or migrant labourers returning home after the season.

(Others: permanent migration, voluntary and forced migration.)

(b) Four factors responsible for migration

1. Economic factors: search for jobs, higher wages and better economic opportunities (towns pull, rural poverty pushes).
2. Social factors: desire for better education, health and social amenities available elsewhere.
3. Political factors: wars, insecurity, persecution and bad governance drive people away.
4. Physical/environmental factors: natural disasters such as drought, flood, famine and infertile land force movement.

(c) Advantages and disadvantages of rural-urban migration

Three advantages

1. Provides abundant cheap labour for urban industries and services.
2. Migrants send home remittances that raise rural incomes and living standards.
3. Relieves population pressure on rural land, and migrants acquire new skills.

Three disadvantages

1. Creates overcrowding, slums, unemployment and pressure on urban amenities in the towns.
2. Leads to shortage of farm labour and neglect of agriculture in the villages.
3. Encourages social vices and crime in towns and leaves an ageing rural population.

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(a) Meaning of manufacturing industry

A manufacturing industry is an economic activity concerned with the processing or transformation of raw materials or semi-finished goods into finished or more useful (higher-value) products for consumption, using labour, machinery and power, for example turning cotton into textiles or crude oil into refined products. It belongs to the secondary sector of the economy.

(b) Characteristic features of manufacturing industries in Tropical African countries

1. They are mostly light and small-scale industries based on processing local raw materials (food, textiles, soap, beverages).
2. They are few, poorly developed and concentrated in a few large towns and ports (for example Lagos, Nairobi).
3. They rely heavily on imported machinery, spare parts and technical skill, and often on foreign capital.
4. They suffer from inadequate power supply, capital and skilled labour, so they operate below capacity.
5. They produce mainly for the home/local market and add little value, since most raw materials are still exported unprocessed.

(c) Four reasons why countries embark on industrialization

1. To create employment and reduce unemployment.
2. To add value to local raw materials and diversify the economy away from dependence on primary exports.
3. To earn and save foreign exchange by producing goods for export and reducing imports (import substitution).
4. To raise national income and living standards and provide manufactured goods for the population.

(Also: to encourage the growth of towns and infrastructure and to promote technological advancement.)

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(a) Sketch map of Nigeria showing selected mineral-producing areas and major towns

Mineral	Mining area located	Major town named
Limestone	Ewekoro area, Ogun State	Ewekoro
Tin	Jos Plateau	Jos
Crude oil	Niger Delta	Port Harcourt
Coal	Udi-Enugu coalfield	Enugu

(b) Importance of crude oil to the economy of Nigeria

1. It earns Nigeria foreign exchange through export.
2. It provides substantial government revenue through taxes, royalties and export proceeds.
3. It provides employment in oil exploration, production, refining, transport and marketing.
4. It supplies essential products such as petrol, diesel, kerosene and cooking gas.
5. It supplies raw materials for petrochemical industries, including plastics, fertiliser, paints and lubricants.
6. Oil revenue assists the provision of infrastructure such as roads, electricity, water supply, schools and hospitals.

(c) Problems facing the mining industry in Nigeria

1. Environmental pollution from mining, oil spills, gas flaring and mine waste damages land and water.
2. Mining operations may cause loss of farmland and land degradation.
3. There is inadequate skilled labour and shortage of modern mining technology.
4. Inadequate transport facilities and poor access roads make movement of machinery and minerals costly.

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(a) Outline map of Nigeria showing internal (domestic) trade

A drawn outline map of Nigeria is required. On it, locate and name the source and destination of two major internal-trade items, join each source to its destination with an arrow showing the direction of movement, and name one important town in each area. Suitable examples:

• Foodstuffs/grains (millet, beans, cattle): source area the far North (Kano), moving southward to the destination market of Lagos/Onitsha in the south. Arrow points from north to south. Towns: Kano (source), Lagos (destination).
• Palm oil and kola/timber (or petroleum products): source area the South (Aba/Port Harcourt), moving northward to Kaduna/Kano. Arrow points from south to north. Towns: Port Harcourt (source), Kaduna (destination).

(Other acceptable items: yam/cassava from the middle belt to the cities, salt/imported goods from the coast inland, cement, fish from the coast to the interior.)

(b) Four factors that have favoured the development of internal trade in Nigeria

1. Regional differences in products: the north produces grains, cattle and groundnuts while the south produces oil palm, yam, kola and petroleum, so surpluses are exchanged between regions.
2. Improved transport network: the spread of roads, railways and waterways links producing and consuming areas.
3. Large population and big urban markets: a large home population and growing cities create strong demand for goods.
4. A common currency and a single national market: the same currency, common language of trade and absence of internal customs barriers ease exchange.

(Also: presence of periodic markets and trading networks, and government encouragement/peace and stability.)

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(a) Distinction between an ecosystem and a food chain

An ecosystem is a natural unit made up of all the living organisms (biotic components) of an area together with the non-living environment (abiotic components) such as soil, water, air, sunlight and climate, and the interactions and energy flow between them (for example a pond, forest or grassland).

A food chain is much narrower: it is a single line of feeding relationships showing the transfer of energy and nutrients from one organism to the next as one feeds on another, for example: grass \(\rightarrow\) grasshopper \(\rightarrow\) lizard \(\rightarrow\) hawk. A food chain is therefore only one part of the wider ecosystem.

(b) Interdependence of the biotic and abiotic components

• Green plants (producers) depend on abiotic factors, using sunlight, carbon dioxide, water and soil nutrients to manufacture food through photosynthesis.
• Animals (consumers) depend on plants and on other animals for food, and on the abiotic environment for oxygen, water and shelter.
• Decomposers (bacteria and fungi) break down dead plants and animals, returning mineral nutrients to the soil, water and air, which the plants then reuse; this recycles nutrients.
• In turn the biotic components affect the abiotic environment: plants add oxygen and humus, give shade and reduce erosion, while animal respiration returns carbon dioxide.
• Thus a change in one component (for example loss of vegetation or reduced rainfall) upsets the others, showing that biotic and abiotic parts form a single, balanced, interdependent system through cycles of energy and matter.

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(a) Five problems of development in the Niger Delta region

1. Difficult terrain: the region is a maze of swamps, creeks, mangrove and seasonal flooding, which makes road building, construction and farming very costly and difficult.
2. Environmental degradation: oil spillage, gas flaring and pollution destroy farmland, fishing waters and the mangrove ecosystem, ruining the people's traditional livelihood.
3. Insecurity and unrest: militancy, kidnapping, oil bunkering and pipeline vandalism discourage investment and disrupt development.
4. Inadequate infrastructure: shortage of good roads, bridges, electricity, pipe-borne water, schools and hospitals because of the terrain and neglect.
5. Poverty, unemployment and marginalisation: despite the oil wealth, many communities are poor, feel neglected and lack basic amenities, breeding agitation.

(Also: pollution of drinking water, loss of biodiversity, and corruption/mismanagement of derivation funds.)

(b) How the problems can be solved

• Effective clean-up and environmental protection: stop gas flaring, prevent and remediate oil spills, and enforce environmental laws.
• Provide infrastructure and amenities: build roads, bridges, electricity, water, schools and hospitals suited to the swampy terrain, through bodies such as the NDDC and the Ministry of Niger Delta.
• Create jobs and empower the people: skills training, employment in the oil industry, support for fishing and farming, and fair sharing of oil revenue (derivation).
• Ensure peace and security: genuine dialogue, amnesty and development programmes to end militancy, and involve communities in decision-making.
• Diversify the local economy and provide alternative livelihoods to reduce dependence on the damaged environment.

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Differences between the Equatorial and Tropical Continental climates

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(a) Five distinguishing features of plantation agriculture in East Africa

1. Large-scale, single-crop (monoculture) cultivation: vast estates are devoted to one cash crop such as tea, coffee, sisal, sugar-cane or pyrethrum.
2. Production for export/market: the crops are grown mainly for sale and export, not for subsistence.
3. Heavy capital investment: plantations require large capital for land, machinery, processing plants and infrastructure, and are often owned by companies or foreign investors.
4. Large, permanent labour force: they employ many hired workers and use scientific methods, fertilizers, pest control and irrigation.
5. On-site processing: the crop is usually partly processed on the estate (tea factories, sisal decorticators, sugar mills) before marketing, and estates are well organised with their own settlements and roads.

(b) Five factors that have favoured plantation agriculture in East Africa

1. Favourable climate: the highland areas have moderate temperatures and reliable rainfall suited to tea and coffee, while lowlands suit sisal and sugar.
2. Fertile volcanic soils in the highlands of Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania.
3. Suitable relief: gently sloping, well-drained highlands and plains ease large-scale cultivation.
4. Availability of cheap, abundant labour from the dense local population.
5. Capital, foreign investment and colonial/company involvement, together with transport links (railways and roads) and access to export ports such as Mombasa.

(Also: ready overseas market demand and government/estate support.)

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(a) Sketch map of Nigeria

Key locations shown on the map:

People	Home area	Major town
Fulani	Far North, especially the Kano-Sokoto savanna belt	Kano
Ibibio	South-East coastal area, mainly Akwa Ibom	Uyo
Yoruba	South-West Nigeria	Ibadan
Urhobo	Western Niger Delta, mainly Delta State	Warri

(b) Effects of physical environment on occupation and house type

(i) Yoruba

• The Yoruba live mainly in the humid forest and derived-savanna belt. The fairly high rainfall, fertile soils and long growing season encourage the cultivation of crops such as yam, cassava, maize, cocoa, kolanut and oil palm.
• The availability of forest products also encourages wood carving, furniture making and other crafts. Trading and weaving are common, particularly in towns.
• Clayey soil is available for building, so traditional houses are commonly made of mud walls, often with thatched roofs. In large urban settlements, permanent houses of blocks and corrugated iron roofing are now widespread.

(ii) Fulani

• The Fulani occupy the northern savanna, where open grassland provides extensive pasture for cattle. Their major occupation is cattle rearing, with milk production and the sale of cattle and dairy products.
• The long dry season and seasonal shortage of water and pasture cause many pastoral Fulani to move with their herds in search of grazing land and water. Some settled Fulani also grow grains and engage in trade.
• Because many are mobile pastoralists, their traditional shelters are light, temporary huts or tents made from grass, leaves, mats and branches. Such shelters are easily dismantled and rebuilt when they move. Settled Fulani may occupy round mud houses with conical thatched roofs.

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(a) Deforestation

Deforestation is the large-scale clearing or removal of forests and trees from an area, usually without replanting, so that the land is put to other uses or left bare. It is caused by activities such as lumbering (logging), the clearing of land for farming and grazing, bush burning, fuel-wood collection, road building and the growth of settlements. Its effects are largely harmful: it exposes the soil to erosion and leaching, reduces soil fertility, lowers rainfall and destroys the water balance, causes loss of wildlife and biodiversity, and increases carbon dioxide in the air, contributing to global warming. It may also lead to desertification at forest margins. Deforestation can be controlled through afforestation and reforestation, control of bush burning, provision of alternative fuels and enforcement of forestry laws.

(b) Drought

Drought is a prolonged period of abnormally low or no rainfall, during which the water supply falls far below normal for a region, leading to acute shortage of water for plants, animals and people. It is caused by failure or lateness of the rains, persistent dry winds, deforestation and the general drying/advance of desert conditions. Its effects include crop failure and famine, death of livestock, drying up of rivers, streams and wells, migration of people and animals (environmental refugees), and the spread of desertification, as experienced in the Sahel region of West Africa. Its effects may be reduced by irrigation, water conservation and storage (dams), drought-resistant crops, afforestation and shelter belts, and early-warning and relief schemes.

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(a) Outline map of Africa showing land-locked countries and their ports

A drawn outline map of Africa is required. Locate and name the following:

(Other acceptable pairs: Niger served by Cotonou/Lagos; Chad by Douala (Cameroon); Uganda by Mombasa (Kenya); Zimbabwe by Beira (Mozambique).)

(b) Four major problems facing land-locked countries in Africa

1. No direct access to the sea: they have no seaport of their own and must depend on the ports of neighbouring coastal states for overseas trade.
2. High transport costs and delays: goods travel long distances overland by road or rail before reaching a port, raising costs and causing delays.
3. Dependence on neighbours: their trade can be disrupted by political disputes, closed borders, wars or transit charges imposed by the coastal country.
4. Limited trade and slow development: difficulty and cost of importing and exporting discourage industry and investment and slow economic growth.

(Also: dependence on the neighbour's transport network and port efficiency, and vulnerability to congestion at foreign ports.)

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Relative contributions of roads and railways to national development (example: Nigeria)

Contributions of roads

• Flexibility and wide coverage: roads reach nearly every town and village, providing door-to-door movement of people and goods and linking farms to markets.
• Movement of perishable and short-distance goods: roads carry foodstuffs, passengers and light freight quickly over short and medium distances.
• Employment and rural development: road transport supports drivers, mechanics and traders, and opens up remote areas for farming, settlement and trade.
• Feeder function: roads act as feeders that connect railways, ports and airports, integrating the whole transport network.

Contributions of railways

• Bulky and heavy haulage: railways carry heavy, bulky goods such as minerals (coal, tin), petroleum products, cash crops and cement cheaply over long distances.
• Low cost per unit over long distance: rail freight is cheaper for large volumes, aiding industry and export trade.
• Opening up the interior: the lines from Lagos and Port Harcourt to the north opened the interior to commercial agriculture and mining and helped develop towns along the routes.
• Mass movement of people in a safe, relatively reliable manner, reducing pressure on roads.

Comparison/conclusion

Roads are more flexible, more widespread and better for short-distance and perishable traffic, but they are costlier per tonne for bulk goods and prone to congestion and accidents. Railways are cheaper and more efficient for heavy, bulky, long-distance traffic but are fixed in route and limited in coverage. The two are therefore complementary: an efficient national economy needs roads as feeders and for local distribution and railways for bulk long-haul movement, together promoting trade, industry, employment and national integration.

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Trade relations: Nigeria-United Kingdom compared with Nigeria-Japan

Similarities (comparison)

• In both cases Nigeria's trade is unfavourable/dependent: Nigeria mainly exports raw materials/primary products (crude oil, cocoa, rubber, hides) and imports manufactured goods (machinery, vehicles, electronics, chemicals) from both partners.
• Both the UK and Japan are industrialized nations that sell high-value finished goods to Nigeria, so Nigeria often runs the weaker side of the exchange with each.
• Trade with both moves by sea (and air) over long distances and both are important trading partners of Nigeria.

Differences (contrast)

• Historical basis: Nigeria-UK trade rests on long colonial and Commonwealth ties, long-established commercial links and a common language; Nigeria-Japan trade is more recent, purely commercial, without colonial history.
• Nature of goods: the UK supplies a wide range of manufactures, services and financial links, while Japan concentrates on vehicles, motorcycles, electronics and heavy machinery.
• Direction and distance: the UK is nearer (Europe) with older shipping routes; Japan is much farther (the Far East), so Nigeria-Japan trade involves longer transport routes and higher freight.
• Balance and volume: trade with the UK is broader and long-standing, whereas Japan buys relatively little from Nigeria, so Nigeria's trade deficit with Japan is often wider than with the UK.

Conclusion: In both relationships Nigeria acts mainly as a supplier of raw materials and a market for manufactured goods, but the UK link is older and colonial in origin while the Japanese link is newer, more distant and dominated by machinery and vehicles.

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(a) Formation of the two features

(i) River capture (river piracy)

• Two rivers flow in roughly parallel valleys, but one (the captor) has a steeper gradient and greater erosive power than its weaker neighbour (the captured/victim).
• The more powerful stream cuts headward (backward) erosion up its valley faster.
• In time its head reaches and taps the channel of the weaker river, diverting the upper part of the victim's water into itself.
• The point of diversion is the elbow of capture; below it the now-dry, water-deprived section of the victim's valley is the wind gap, and the beheaded lower stream is the misfit stream.

Diagram required: two parallel rivers with the captor cutting back at right angles into the victim, marked with the elbow of capture, wind gap and misfit stream.

(ii) Waterfall

• A waterfall forms where a river flows over a band of hard (resistant) rock lying over softer rock, or over an edge such as a fault scarp or a plateau.
• The soft rock downstream is worn away faster than the hard rock, creating a vertical step over which the water plunges.
• At the foot the falling water and load erode a deep plunge pool, and undercut the soft rock, leaving the hard cap-rock overhanging.
• The overhang eventually collapses, and by repetition the fall retreats upstream, leaving a steep-sided gorge below it.

Diagram required: cross-section showing hard rock over soft rock, the vertical fall, plunge pool, overhang and receding gorge.

(b) Usefulness of each feature to man

• River capture: the diverted, increased volume of water in the captor river provides a larger, more reliable supply for water supply, irrigation and navigation, and the wind gap can serve as a routeway for roads and railways.
• Waterfall: the fall of water is harnessed for the generation of hydro-electric power and also serves as a scenic attraction for tourism/recreation.

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(a) Three effects of the revolution of the earth

1. The four seasons: as the earth revolves round the sun with its axis tilted at \(66\tfrac{1}{2}^{\circ}\), the hemispheres are alternately tilted towards and away from the sun, giving spring, summer, autumn and winter.
2. Varying length of day and night: the length of daylight and darkness changes with the seasons at any place away from the equator.
3. Changing altitude of the midday sun and the apparent migration of the overhead sun between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, producing the equinoxes and solstices.

(For rotation, acceptable effects are day and night, deflection of winds/currents by the Coriolis force, differences in time/longitude, and the rise and fall of tides.)

(b) Reasons

(i) Why all areas north of the Arctic Circle have twenty-four hours of daylight on 21 June: On 21 June (the June solstice) the earth is tilted so that the North Pole leans towards the sun and the overhead sun is at the Tropic of Cancer. Because of the \(23\tfrac{1}{2}^{\circ}\) tilt of the axis, the circle of illumination passes beyond the North Pole, so the whole region north of the Arctic Circle remains within the sunlit half of the earth as it rotates. The sun never sets there on that day, giving continuous (24-hour) daylight, the "midnight sun".

(ii) Why areas within the tropics have more sunshine than areas outside the tropics: Within the tropics the sun's rays strike the earth vertically or almost vertically throughout the year, so the sun is high in the sky, its heat is concentrated on a small area, and skies are often clearer for much of the year. Towards higher latitudes the rays strike at an increasingly oblique (slanting) angle, spreading the same energy over a larger area and passing through more atmosphere, so those areas receive less intense and less prolonged sunshine.

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(a) Five factors responsible for low population density in some parts of West Africa

1. Harsh climate: areas of very low, unreliable rainfall (the Sahel and desert margins) or excessively wet, humid areas discourage settlement.
2. Poor/infertile soils: thin, leached or sandy soils that cannot support good farming keep population sparse.
3. Difficult relief and terrain: mountains, rugged highlands, swamps, mangrove and dense forest are hard to farm and settle.
4. Prevalence of pests and diseases: the tsetse fly (sleeping sickness), river blindness, malaria and similar hazards drive people away from affected areas.
5. Poor development and lack of amenities: absence of roads, industries, jobs and social services, sometimes worsened by insecurity/conflict, leads to out-migration.

(Also: past slave-raiding that depopulated areas, and infertile flood-prone or waterlogged land.)

(b) Four ways low population density can be an advantage

1. Less pressure on land and resources: more farmland, water and forest are available per person, reducing over-cultivation and land disputes.
2. Larger share of amenities and higher living standards: the available food, jobs, houses and social services are shared among fewer people.
3. Less environmental degradation: reduced deforestation, soil erosion, pollution and overcrowding, keeping the environment healthier.
4. Lower unemployment and less congestion: fewer people competing for jobs, and little overcrowding, slums or traffic pressure in settlements.