WAEC SSCE - Government - 2001 (Essay)

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Pressure groups are organised associations that seek to influence government policy in favour of their members' interests without themselves aiming to capture political power. They employ a variety of methods to achieve their objectives.

1. Lobbying: They approach and persuade legislators, ministers and other public officials through direct contact, presentation of memoranda and personal representations to secure favourable decisions.
2. Peaceful demonstrations, rallies and protests: They organise marches, processions and public rallies to draw attention to their demands and show the strength of their support.
3. Strikes and industrial action: Especially in the case of labour unions, they withdraw services, embark on go-slows or picket to compel the government or employers to meet their demands.
4. Use of the mass media and publicity: They publish articles, grant press interviews, sponsor advertisements and use radio and television to mobilise public opinion in support of their cause.
5. Petitions and memoranda: They submit written petitions, memoranda and position papers to government, commissions of inquiry and legislative committees.
6. Litigation: They institute or support court actions to challenge unfavourable laws or policies and to defend the interests of their members.
7. Financial contributions and support to political parties: They fund and support parties and candidates sympathetic to their cause in order to gain favourable treatment.
8. Dialogue, negotiation and consultation: They enter into discussions and collective bargaining with the government or employers to resolve issues amicably.
9. Threats and boycotts: They may threaten to withdraw cooperation, boycott goods, services or elections, or otherwise apply pressure to force concessions.
10. Research and expert advice: They provide governments with technical information, research findings and expert opinion to shape policy in their favour.
11. Civil disobedience: As a last resort, some groups may refuse to obey certain laws or regulations they consider unjust.

Through these methods, pressure groups seek to influence the making and implementation of public policy in their favour.

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Local authorities in Nigeria suffer chronically from inadequate revenue, which weakens their capacity for grassroots development. Their revenue can be improved through the following measures.

1. Efficient collection of internally generated revenue: Local authorities should tighten the collection of the rates, tenement rates, licences, fees and levies within their jurisdiction, blocking leakages and prosecuting defaulters.
2. Expansion of the tax base: They should identify and bring into the tax net new sources of revenue, such as market and motor-park fees, radio and television licences, and levies on small businesses and property.
3. Establishment of revenue-yielding projects: Councils can invest in commercial ventures such as markets, motor parks, guest houses, transport services and small industries whose profits provide steady income.
4. Timely and adequate statutory allocation: The federal and state governments should release the councils' statutory allocations from the Federation Account promptly and in full, and the review of the sharing formula in favour of local government would boost their funds.
5. Abolition or reform of the joint state-local government account: Ending the diversion of local government funds through the joint account, or ensuring transparency in its operation, would leave councils with more money.
6. Elimination of corruption and financial leakages: Strengthening auditing, accountability and anti-corruption measures would prevent embezzlement and diversion of council funds.
7. Employment of qualified revenue staff: Recruiting and training competent finance and revenue personnel would improve assessment, collection and record-keeping.
8. Grants and loans: Councils can obtain grants-in-aid, matching grants and loans from higher levels of government or financial institutions to finance capital projects.
9. Public enlightenment on tax obligations: Educating citizens on the need to pay rates and taxes promptly would improve voluntary compliance and collection.
10. Prudent financial management: Cutting waste, avoiding frivolous spending and budgeting carefully would make the available revenue go further.

These measures would broaden the revenue base of local authorities and make them more effective agents of development.

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The Richards Constitution, introduced in 1946 by Governor Sir Arthur Richards, replaced the Clifford Constitution of 1922. Its main features are as follows.

1. Introduction of the regional system: For the first time Nigeria was divided into three regions, the Northern, Western and Eastern Regions, laying the foundation for later federalism and regionalism.
2. Establishment of Regional Houses of Assembly: A House of Assembly was created for each region, and the North had in addition a House of Chiefs, giving the regions their own deliberative bodies.
3. An enlarged Central Legislative Council: A single Legislative Council for the whole country was retained, and for the first time its authority extended to the North, which had previously been governed separately by proclamation.
4. Unofficial majority in the Legislative Council: The Central Legislative Council had an unofficial (African) majority, though the members were largely nominated rather than elected.
5. Predominance of nomination over election: Most members of the councils were nominated by the Governor; the elective principle was retained only for a few seats in Lagos and Calabar, inherited from the Clifford Constitution.
6. Advisory role of the regional councils: The Regional Houses were largely deliberative and advisory bodies; they could discuss and make recommendations but real power remained with the Central Government and the Governor.
7. Retention of strong governor's powers: The Governor retained wide powers, including reserve and veto powers over legislation, so that ultimate authority stayed with the colonial administration.
8. Aim of promoting unity in diversity: The constitution was intended to promote the unity of Nigeria while providing for the diverse elements of the country and giving greater participation to Nigerians in their own affairs.
9. Long tenure without consultation: It was designed to last nine years and was imposed without adequate consultation with Nigerians, a feature that drew strong criticism from nationalists such as Herbert Macaulay and Nnamdi Azikiwe.

Although criticised for its non-consultative introduction and limited elective element, the Richards Constitution is important as the one that introduced regionalism into Nigerian constitutional development.

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On 29 July 1975 the government of General Yakubu Gowon was overthrown in a bloodless coup that brought General Murtala Muhammed to power. The coup was caused by a combination of the following factors.

1. Failure to hand over power to civilians: Gowon had promised in 1970 to return the country to civil rule by 1976, but in 1974 he reneged, declaring the date unrealistic. This broken promise angered many Nigerians and members of the armed forces.
2. Corruption and indiscipline in government: Widespread corruption, indiscipline and abuse of office by public officials, including some of Gowon's own military governors, discredited the administration.
3. Indictment of the state governors: Most of Gowon's twelve military governors were widely accused of amassing illegal wealth and gross misconduct, yet he failed to call them to order or remove them.
4. Economic mismanagement: The government was accused of mismanaging the economy despite the oil-boom revenues; the notorious Lagos cement armada (the port congestion scandal) was a glaring example of waste and poor planning.
5. Insensitivity to public grievances: The administration appeared aloof and unresponsive to the hardships and complaints of the people, including delays over a census and the general drift of government.
6. Slow pace of decision-making and drift: Gowon's style of endless consultation and indecision created a sense of drift and inertia in the government.
7. Discontent within the army: Grievances over promotions, welfare, prolonged military engagements and the general conduct of affairs bred discontent among sections of the armed forces.
8. The 1973 census controversy: The disputed and inconclusive national census heightened political tension and further weakened confidence in the regime.
9. Loss of credibility and public confidence: The combination of these failures eroded the legitimacy of the Gowon administration and made its overthrow acceptable to many Nigerians.

These accumulated grievances provided the justification for the July 1975 coup that ended Gowon's nine-year rule.

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Feudalism was a political, social and economic system that prevailed in medieval Europe and in parts of pre-colonial Africa, based on land ownership and a chain of personal obligations between lord and vassal. Its main characteristics are as follows.

1. Land as the basis of power and wealth: Land (the fief) was the principal source of wealth and status. Whoever controlled land controlled political and economic power.
2. A hierarchical class structure: Society was rigidly stratified, typically with the king or monarch at the top, followed by the nobles or lords, then the knights or vassals, and the peasants or serfs at the bottom.
3. The lord-vassal relationship: Land was granted by a lord to a vassal in return for military service, loyalty and other obligations, creating a chain of personal ties running from the king down to the lowest tenant.
4. Obligations and services: Vassals owed their lords military service, homage, fealty and various dues, while lords owed their vassals protection and the grant of land.
5. Serfdom and forced labour: The peasants or serfs were tied to the land, worked on the lord's estate (the manor), paid rents and dues, and were not free to leave without the lord's permission.
6. The manorial (self-sufficient) economy: Economic life centred on the manor, which was largely self-sufficient, producing most of what it needed and engaging in little trade or use of money.
7. Decentralised political authority: Political power was fragmented among many local lords rather than concentrated in a strong central government, so that each lord exercised authority, including justice, over his own domain.
8. Ascription and heredity: Status and position were largely inherited and fixed by birth, allowing little social mobility between classes.
9. Fusion of political and economic power: The same landowning class that controlled the economy also exercised political and judicial authority over the people on its land.

Feudalism therefore rested on land tenure, a hierarchy of mutual obligations and the subordination of a servile peasantry to a landowning aristocracy.

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Nationalism in West Africa was the organised demand by the indigenous peoples for freedom from colonial rule and for self-government. Many of the very policies of the British colonial administration provoked resentment and thereby stimulated the rise of nationalism. These policies contributed in the following ways.

1. Racial discrimination and segregation: The British practised racial discrimination in the civil service, residential areas, clubs and social life, treating Africans as inferior. This injured African pride and stirred resentment against colonial rule.
2. Exclusion of Africans from the higher civil service and top posts: Educated Africans were denied senior positions in the administration, which were reserved for Europeans. This bred discontent among the educated elite who then agitated for change.
3. Denial of political participation: Colonial constitutions gave Africans little or no real say in the government of their own countries, prompting demands for greater representation and self-rule.
4. Introduction of Western education: Colonial (and missionary) education produced a class of educated Africans - lawyers, journalists, teachers and doctors - who became aware of their rights and provided the leadership of the nationalist movements.
5. Economic exploitation: Policies of forced labour, heavy taxation, low prices for cash crops, expropriation of land and the domination of trade by European firms impoverished the people and fuelled anti-colonial feeling.
6. Harsh and autocratic administration: The arbitrary and high-handed conduct of colonial officials, and the use of unpopular measures under indirect rule, alienated the people.
7. Improved communication and transport: Roads, railways, the telegraph and a common language brought people together, eased the spread of nationalist ideas and made organisation across ethnic lines possible.
8. Urbanisation: The growth of towns brought diverse peoples together, created a working class and provided centres where grievances could be shared and nationalist movements organised.
9. Amalgamation and creation of new states: The lumping together of different peoples under one administration created larger political units within which a common nationalist consciousness could develop.
10. Restriction of press freedom: Attempts to muzzle the African press provoked resistance and turned newspapers into powerful instruments of nationalist agitation.

Thus the discriminatory, exploitative and undemocratic character of British colonial policies, together with the education and infrastructure it introduced, combined to arouse and strengthen West African nationalism.

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The National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (N.C.N.C.) was formed in 1944 under the leadership of Herbert Macaulay as President and Nnamdi Azikiwe as Secretary-General. It was the first major nationalist party with a nationwide outlook, and it pursued the following objectives.

1. To achieve self-government and independence: Its foremost aim was to secure political freedom and self-government for Nigeria and to bring an end to British colonial rule.
2. To promote national unity: It sought to weld the various peoples, ethnic groups and organisations of Nigeria and the Cameroons into one united nation, transcending tribal and sectional divisions.
3. To secure political education and enlightenment of the people: It aimed to educate Nigerians politically, awaken their national consciousness and mobilise them for the anti-colonial struggle.
4. To defend and promote the political and economic interests of Nigerians: It championed the rights and welfare of the people and worked to improve their economic and social conditions.
5. To oppose obnoxious colonial policies: It campaigned against unpopular colonial measures, notably the Richards Constitution of 1946 and the objectionable land and mineral ordinances of the time.
6. To provide a national platform for political action: It set out to unite the numerous trade unions, ethnic unions, social clubs and political groups under a single national umbrella for effective political action.
7. To secure improved constitutional and representative government: It demanded greater African participation in government and more representative institutions leading toward full self-rule.
8. To promote democracy and protect fundamental rights: It stood for democratic government and the protection of the rights and liberties of the people.

Through these objectives, the N.C.N.C. played a leading role in the nationalist movement and in the eventual attainment of Nigerian independence.

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A democratic state is one in which supreme political authority resides in the people, who exercise it directly or through freely elected representatives. Such a state displays the following basic features.

1. Popular sovereignty: Ultimate power belongs to the people, who are the source of governmental authority and who choose and can remove their rulers.
2. Periodic free and fair elections: Governments are chosen through regular elections conducted on the basis of universal adult suffrage, secret ballot and equal value of votes.
3. Rule of law: Everyone, including those in government, is subject to the law; the law is supreme, and no one is above it or punished except for a breach of established law.
4. Fundamental human rights: The rights and freedoms of citizens, such as freedom of speech, association, movement and religion, are guaranteed and protected by the constitution and the courts.
5. Constitutional and limited government: Government operates within the limits set by a constitution, and its powers are defined and restrained to prevent arbitrary rule.
6. Separation of powers and checks and balances: The legislative, executive and judicial functions are shared among distinct organs that check one another to prevent the abuse of power.
7. Existence of an independent judiciary: The courts are free from executive or legislative control and can interpret the law and protect citizens' rights impartially.
8. Multi-party system and political freedom: Citizens are free to form and join political parties and to organise opposition, providing choice and a check on the government.
9. Freedom of the press and public opinion: A free press and freedom of expression allow the free flow of information and enable citizens to criticise the government and form informed opinions.
10. Political equality and majority rule with respect for minority rights: All citizens are equal before the law and in political participation, decisions are taken by the majority, but the rights of minorities are respected.
11. Accountability and responsible government: Those in power are answerable to the people for their actions and can be removed through constitutional means.

Where these features are present, a state can properly be described as democratic.

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(a) Meaning of foreign policy

Foreign policy is the set of principles, goals and strategies that a state adopts to guide its relations and dealings with other states and international organisations in the pursuit and protection of its national interest. It is the totality of a country's actions, attitudes and decisions in the conduct of its external affairs, aimed at safeguarding its security, promoting its economic and political interests and enhancing its image in the international community.

(b) Basic factors that influence Nigeria's foreign policy

1. National interest: The overriding factor is the protection and promotion of Nigeria's security, economic and political interests, which every foreign policy decision seeks to serve.
2. Geographical location: Nigeria's position in West Africa and on the African continent shapes its concern for the peace, stability and integration of its immediate sub-region and of Africa as a whole.
3. Historical and colonial ties: Nigeria's colonial past and membership of bodies such as the Commonwealth influence its relations with Britain and other former colonial powers.
4. Economic considerations: The state of the economy, dependence on oil, the need for trade, investment, aid and markets strongly influences the direction of foreign policy.
5. Military strength: The size and capability of the armed forces affect Nigeria's ability to project power, undertake peacekeeping and back its diplomacy, as in ECOMOG operations.
6. Population and human resources: Nigeria's large population and manpower give it a leadership claim in Africa and influence its role and voice in international affairs.
7. Ideology and political system: The prevailing ideology and the nature of the government of the day (military or civilian) shape the tone and priorities of foreign policy.
8. Public opinion and pressure groups: The views of citizens, the press, the National Assembly and interest groups influence foreign policy decisions.
9. Membership of international organisations: Nigeria's membership of the AU (formerly OAU), ECOWAS, the UN, the Commonwealth and the Non-Aligned Movement imposes obligations that shape its external conduct.
10. The international environment: Global power alignments, the dictates of world peace and the actions of other states affect the choices open to Nigeria.
11. The personality of leaders: The disposition and vision of the head of government and key decision-makers influence particular foreign-policy positions.

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The Assembly of Heads of State and Government was the supreme organ of the Organization of African Unity (O.A.U.). It was composed of the presidents and heads of government of all member states and met at least once a year. Its functions were as follows.

1. Supreme policy-making body: It was the highest organ of the O.A.U. and laid down the general policy and direction of the organisation.
2. Discussion of matters of common concern: It deliberated on issues of common interest to Africa with a view to coordinating and harmonising the general policy of member states.
3. Coordination and harmonisation of member states' policies: It worked to bring the policies and activities of member states into harmony to promote African unity and solidarity.
4. Review of the structure and functions of other organs: It examined, coordinated and supervised the functioning of the other institutions of the organisation, including the Council of Ministers and the specialised commissions.
5. Admission of new members: It considered and approved applications for membership of the organisation.
6. Settlement of disputes among member states: It considered disputes between member states and worked toward their peaceful resolution.
7. Election of officers: It elected its chairman and other officials and appointed or approved key officers of the organisation.
8. Approval of the budget: It considered and approved the budget and financial arrangements of the organisation, and fixed members' contributions.
9. Determination of the fight against colonialism and apartheid: It set the policy and coordinated African efforts for the total liberation of the continent from colonialism, racism and apartheid.
10. Amendment of the Charter: It could consider and adopt amendments to the O.A.U. Charter.

As the assembly of the continent's leaders, it therefore gave the O.A.U. its overall direction and took the final decisions on all major African questions.

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Before the advent of colonial rule, the Hausa-Fulani of Northern Nigeria (a British West African territory) governed themselves through a highly organised, centralised system of administration based on the emirate structure and Islamic law.

1. The Emir as head of the state: Each emirate was headed by an Emir, who was the political, administrative and religious head. He wielded executive, legislative and judicial authority and was regarded as the spiritual leader of his people.
2. A centralised and hierarchical structure: Authority flowed downward from the Emir through a well-defined chain of officials, making the system firmly centralised and orderly.
3. Council of advisers (title-holders): The Emir ruled with the advice and assistance of a council of appointed officials who headed various departments of state. These included the Waziri (chief adviser or prime minister), the Galadima (in charge of the capital), the Madawaki (commander of the army), the Sarkin Ruwa (in charge of water/fisheries), the Sarkin Fada (head of palace officials) and the Maaji (treasurer).
4. Administration based on Islamic law: Government and justice were founded on the Sharia (Islamic law). The Alkali courts, presided over by learned judges (Alkalis), administered justice according to Islamic law, with the Emir's court as the highest.
5. Taxation system: There was an organised system of taxation, including Zakat (alms), Jangali (cattle tax), Kharaj (land tax) and other levies, collected by appointed officials and used to run the administration.
6. District and village administration: The emirate was divided into districts headed by District Heads (Hakimi) and villages headed by Village Heads, who administered their areas and collected taxes on behalf of the Emir.
7. Standing army: The state maintained an organised army under the Madawaki for defence, the maintenance of order and the expansion of the emirate.
8. Appointment and control of officials: The Emir appointed, promoted and could dismiss the officials who served under him, ensuring loyalty and control.

This centralised, hierarchical and Islamic-based system made the Hausa-Fulani emirates well suited to the indirect rule later adopted by the British.

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A unitary system of government is one in which all constitutional powers are concentrated in a single central government, from which any powers exercised by lower units are delegated. Countries adopt this system for the following reasons.

1. Homogeneous population: Where the people are largely of the same ethnic, cultural, religious or linguistic background, there is little need for the separate regional autonomy that federalism provides, so a single central authority suffices.
2. Small size of the country: In a geographically small state, one central government can conveniently administer the whole territory, making the multiple layers of a federation unnecessary.
3. Strong and effective central control: A unitary system provides a single, strong centre of authority capable of taking firm and quick decisions and maintaining national unity and order.
4. Cheaper and more economical to run: Because it avoids the duplication of governmental organs found in federations, a unitary system reduces the cost of administration.
5. Uniformity of laws and policies: It allows laws, policies and standards to be uniform throughout the country, avoiding the confusion of differing regional laws.
6. Prevention of disunity and secession: By concentrating power at the centre, it discourages the growth of strong regional loyalties that might threaten the unity of the state or lead to secession.
7. Simplicity and clarity of administration: Fewer levels of government make the system simple to operate and free of the disputes over the division of powers common in federations.
8. Quick and flexible decision-making: A single centre of authority can respond promptly to national problems and emergencies without lengthy consultation between tiers of government.
9. Absence of demand for regional autonomy: Where component units do not press for self-government or fear domination, there is no pressure to adopt a federal structure.

For these reasons, countries such as Britain, France and Ghana operate unitary systems of government.