WAEC SSCE - Government - 2005 (Essay)

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(a) Meaning of bureaucracy

Bureaucracy refers to a system of administration in which the day to day business of government or a large organisation is carried out by trained, permanent and appointed officials arranged in a clear hierarchy of offices, each with defined duties, and operating according to fixed rules and procedures. The term is commonly used to describe the civil service, the body of professional public servants who advise the political heads and implement government policies. Its features include hierarchy of authority, specialisation and division of labour, impersonality, adherence to written rules, and permanence of officials. The idea was systematically analysed by the German sociologist Max Weber.

(b) Five functions of a modern civil service

1. Implementation of government policies: The civil service carries out and puts into effect the decisions and programmes made by the political executive.
2. Advising the government: Civil servants, because of their expertise and experience, advise ministers on the formulation of policies and the likely consequences of various options.
3. Provision of essential services: They deliver public services such as education, health, water, roads, security and other social amenities to the citizens.
4. Maintaining continuity and stability of administration: Being permanent, the civil service ensures that governance continues smoothly even when political governments change hands.
5. Collection of revenue and management of public finance: Civil servants assess and collect taxes, customs and other revenue and manage government expenditure.
6. Record keeping and provision of information: They keep official records, statistics and documents which serve as the memory of government and aid decision making.
7. Preparation of the national budget and drafting of bills: They assist in preparing estimates and drafting legislation for the legislature.

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The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) was established by the Treaty of Lagos on 28 May 1975 to promote cooperation and integration among the states of West Africa. Its main aims and objectives include:

1. Promotion of economic cooperation and integration: To harmonise and coordinate the economic policies of member states and eventually establish an economic union in West Africa for their collective development.
2. Establishment of a common market: To remove trade barriers, tariffs and customs duties among member states and create a large free-trade area that promotes the free movement of goods within the sub-region.
3. Free movement of persons, goods, services and capital: To abolish obstacles to the movement of citizens, labour, capital and services across the borders of member states and grant citizens the right of residence and establishment.
4. Raising the standard of living of the people: To accelerate economic growth and development so as to improve the living conditions and welfare of the people of West Africa.
5. Promotion of common development projects: To develop jointly transport, telecommunications, energy, industry and agriculture, and to pool resources for large infrastructural projects.
6. Maintenance of peace, security and stability: To foster harmonious relations, settle disputes among members peacefully, and maintain regional peace and security (as later pursued through the ECOWAS Monitoring Group, ECOMOG).
7. Promotion of solidarity and unity: To strengthen fraternity, cooperation and a sense of common identity among the peoples and governments of the sub-region.
8. Harmonisation of monetary and financial policies: To work towards a common currency and coordinated monetary systems for the sub-region.

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(a) Meaning of colonialism

Colonialism is the policy and practice by which a powerful nation acquires, controls and administers a weaker territory (a colony) and its people, exploiting its human and material resources for the benefit of the colonising power. Under colonialism the colony loses its sovereignty and independence and is governed from outside, its economy, politics and social life being subordinated to the interests of the mother country. In West Africa, Britain, France, Portugal and Germany established colonies which they ruled through systems such as indirect rule, assimilation and association.

(b) Five powers of the British Governor (using Nigeria as the West African colony)

1. Executive powers: The Governor was the head of the colonial administration who supervised all departments of government, appointed and dismissed officials and carried out the policies of the British Crown.
2. Legislative powers: He presided over the Legislative Council, initiated bills, and could enact laws and ordinances for the colony; his assent was required before any bill became law.
3. Power of veto and reservation: He could refuse assent to (veto) bills passed by the Council or reserve them for the pleasure of the Crown, thereby controlling legislation.
4. Emergency and reserve powers: In times of emergency the Governor could rule by decree, suspend the constitution and take any measure he considered necessary for peace, order and good government.
5. Judicial powers (prerogative of mercy): He could establish courts, appoint judges, and exercise the prerogative of mercy by pardoning, reprieving or commuting the sentences of convicted persons.
6. Control of finance: He supervised the colonial budget and public revenue and expenditure, and his approval was needed for financial measures.
7. Appointment of members: He nominated the official and unofficial members of the Legislative and Executive Councils.

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(a) Three activities of the National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA)

The NCBWA was formed in 1920 under the leadership of Casely Hayford to press for reforms in the four British West African colonies (Nigeria, Gold Coast, Sierra Leone and the Gambia). Its activities included:

1. Sending a delegation and petitions to Britain: In 1920 the Congress sent a delegation to London to present petitions to the Colonial Secretary and the King demanding constitutional and political reforms.
2. Demand for elective principle and African representation: It agitated for the introduction of the elective principle so that Africans could elect their own representatives into the legislative councils, and for greater African participation in government.
3. Demand for other reforms: It campaigned for the establishment of a West African university, the appointment of Africans into higher positions in the civil service, judicial reform including the appointment of Africans as judges, and control of the press and municipal government by Africans.

(b) Three effects of the activities

1. Introduction of the elective principle: The agitation contributed to the granting of the Clifford Constitution of 1922 in Nigeria, which introduced the elective principle for the first time in British West Africa.
2. Growth of nationalism and political awareness: The activities awakened and stimulated political consciousness and nationalist feeling among West Africans, paving the way for later, more radical nationalist movements.
3. Emergence of political parties: The elective principle it helped to secure led directly to the formation of political parties such as the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) in 1923 to contest elections.
4. Increased African participation in government: It opened the way for greater involvement of educated Africans in the legislative councils and administration.

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The Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) was founded by Herbert Macaulay in 1923, following the introduction of the elective principle by the Clifford Constitution of 1922. As Nigeria's first political party, it contributed to the political development of the country in the following ways:

1. First modern political party: The NNDP was the first properly organised political party in Nigeria, and it set the pattern and example for the formation of later parties, thereby laying the foundation of party politics.
2. Participation in elections: It contested and won the elective seats in Lagos in the elections of 1923, 1928 and 1933, giving practical meaning to the elective principle and demonstrating that Africans could organise for electoral competition.
3. Political education and awareness: Through its rallies, campaigns and programmes, the party educated Nigerians politically, raised their consciousness and encouraged them to take interest in the affairs of government.
4. Championing nationalist demands: The party campaigned for greater African participation in government, the Africanisation of the civil service, improved education and municipal reforms, thereby advancing the nationalist cause.
5. Use of the press: Through the Lagos Daily News and other platforms, the party criticised colonial policies, mobilised public opinion and defended the interests of Nigerians.
6. Training ground for nationalists: It produced and trained a crop of nationalist leaders and gave them experience in political organisation, which prepared the ground for the more radical parties like the NYM and NCNC that followed.
7. Promotion of the elective principle: Its success sustained and strengthened the elective principle and pressed for its extension to other parts of the country.

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(a) Meaning of representative government

A representative government is a system of government in which the people do not rule directly but elect representatives who make laws and take decisions on their behalf. Because it is impossible for all citizens in a large modern state to gather and govern themselves, they periodically choose, through free elections, a smaller body of persons to exercise governmental power in their name and interest. The representatives are accountable to the electorate and can be voted out at the next election. It is therefore a form of indirect democracy.

(b)(i) Two features of a representative government

• Representatives are chosen through periodic free and fair elections based on universal adult suffrage.
• The elected representatives are accountable and responsible to the people who can remove them at the next election.

(b)(ii) Three conditions necessary for a representative government

1. Regular free and fair elections: There must be periodic, honest elections conducted by an independent electoral body so that the choice of representatives reflects the true wishes of the people.
2. Existence of political parties and freedom of association: Two or more political parties should be free to organise, campaign and offer the electorate a genuine choice of candidates and programmes.
3. Fundamental human rights and freedom of expression: Citizens must enjoy freedom of speech, the press and assembly so that they can debate issues, criticise the government and make informed choices.
4. An enlightened and literate electorate: The people should be sufficiently educated and politically conscious to choose their representatives wisely and hold them accountable.
5. Rule of law and an independent judiciary: The law must be supreme and disputes, including electoral ones, settled fairly by impartial courts.

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(a) Meaning of authority

Authority is the legal or rightful power vested in a person or body to give commands, take decisions, enforce obedience and be obeyed by others. It is power that is recognised as legitimate, meaning the people accept the right of the holder to exercise it. Authority differs from raw power because it is backed by law, custom or general acceptance, so obedience is given willingly rather than merely out of fear. For example, a police officer directing traffic or a court passing judgment exercises authority.

(b) Main sources of political authority

1. The constitution and law: A written or unwritten constitution and the laws of the land confer authority on offices and office holders and define the limits of that authority.
2. Tradition and custom: In traditional societies, authority is derived from long established customs, usages and inheritance, as in the case of kings and chiefs who rule by birthright.
3. Charisma (personal qualities): The exceptional personal gifts, magnetism and leadership qualities of an individual can attract followers and confer authority, as with a popular revolutionary or religious leader.
4. The people (popular consent or election): In a democracy, authority flows from the sovereign will of the people expressed through free elections and mandate.
5. Delegation: Authority may be handed down from a superior body or officer to a subordinate, so that the subordinate acts with borrowed authority.
6. Religion: Divine or religious sanction can be a source of authority, as in theocratic states where rulers claim to govern in the name of God.

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(a) Separation of powers

Separation of powers is a constitutional principle, associated with the French political philosopher Baron de Montesquieu, which holds that the three organs of government, namely the legislature, the executive and the judiciary, should be kept separate and independent of one another. According to the principle, the same person or body should not exercise more than one of the three functions of government, and each organ should perform its own distinct function without interference from the others. The purpose is to prevent the concentration of power in one hand, guard against tyranny and dictatorship, and protect the liberty of the citizens.

(b) How separation of powers operates under the presidential system

1. Separate personnel: No person may belong to more than one organ at a time. A minister who is appointed into the executive cannot remain a member of the legislature, unlike in the parliamentary system.
2. Fixed and independent tenure: The President and the legislature are separately elected and each enjoys a fixed term. The President cannot dissolve the legislature, and the legislature cannot vote the President out through a simple vote of no confidence.
3. Distinct functions: The legislature makes the laws, the executive (President) implements and enforces the laws, and the judiciary interprets the laws and settles disputes, each within its own sphere.
4. Checks and balances: While the organs are separate, they check one another. The legislature makes laws but the President can veto bills; the President appoints judges and ministers but the legislature must confirm them; the legislature can impeach the President; and the judiciary can declare the acts of the executive or legislature unconstitutional through judicial review.
5. Independence of the judiciary: Judges enjoy security of tenure and cannot be easily removed, so that they can interpret the law and check the other arms without fear.

Thus, under the presidential system the principle operates not as a rigid, total separation, but as separated organs held together by a web of checks and balances.

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(a) Meaning of federal character (with two examples)

Federal character is a principle, enshrined in the Nigerian Constitution, which requires that the composition of the government and its agencies, and the conduct of their affairs, should reflect the federal, ethnic, geographical and religious diversity of the country so as to promote national unity, give every section a sense of belonging and prevent the domination of the government by persons from a few states or ethnic groups. In short, appointments and the distribution of amenities and offices must fairly represent all the component parts of the federation. Examples of its application include:

• The requirement that the President appoints at least one minister from each of the 36 states of the federation.
• The use of quota system in admission into federal institutions such as the unity schools, the armed forces, the police and the federal civil service, so that candidates from all states are represented.

(b) Three factors responsible for the introduction of federal character

1. Ethnic diversity and rivalry: Nigeria is a multi-ethnic society and there was need to accommodate the many groups fairly and reduce inter-ethnic suspicion and rivalry.
2. Fear of domination and marginalisation: The minority and less developed groups feared domination by the larger and more advanced groups, so the principle was introduced to protect them and ensure equity.
3. The desire for national unity and integration: To bind the diverse peoples together, give every group a sense of belonging and foster loyalty to the nation, federal character was adopted.
4. Uneven development among the sections: Differences in educational and economic development among the regions made it necessary to balance opportunities so that no area was left behind.

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(a) The concept of proletariat

The proletariat is a term made popular by Karl Marx to describe the working class in a capitalist society, that is, the mass of people who own no means of production (no land, factories or capital) and who therefore survive by selling their labour to the owners of capital (the bourgeoisie) in exchange for wages. They are the exploited class whose surplus labour, according to Marx, creates the profit enjoyed by the capitalist class. Marx predicted that the proletariat would eventually become conscious of their oppression, unite and overthrow the bourgeoisie in a revolution, leading to a classless, socialist society.

(b) Four features of socialism

1. Collective or public ownership of the means of production: Land, factories, industries and other major resources are owned and controlled by the state or the community on behalf of all, not by private individuals.
2. Central economic planning: Production, distribution and prices are directed by the state through a planned economy rather than by the free play of market forces.
3. Equitable distribution of wealth: Socialism aims at reducing inequality, sharing wealth fairly and providing for the basic needs of all citizens according to the principle of social justice.
4. Emphasis on social welfare and the common good: The state provides essential services such as education, health and housing free or at low cost, placing collective welfare above private profit.
5. Classless society: Socialism seeks to abolish exploitation and the class distinctions between the rich and the poor.

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In the precolonial era, traditional rulers such as the Obas, Emirs, Obis and other chiefs and kings were the central authority in their communities and combined political, judicial, religious, military and economic roles. Their roles included the following:

1. Executive and administrative role: The traditional ruler was the head of the government of his community. He, together with his council of chiefs, made day to day administrative decisions, appointed subordinate officials and supervised the affairs of the state.
2. Law making (legislative) role: In consultation with his council of elders and title holders, the ruler made laws, bye-laws and regulations that guided the conduct of the people.
3. Judicial role: The ruler served as the highest judge in the land. He settled disputes, tried cases, interpreted customary law and imposed sanctions on offenders, often with his council acting as a court.
4. Religious and spiritual role: The traditional ruler was regarded as the spiritual head and link between the people and their ancestors or gods. He performed sacrifices and led important religious festivals for the well being of the community.
5. Military and defence role: He was the commander in chief who organised the community for defence, declared war, made peace and protected the people and territory against external aggression.
6. Economic and financial role: The ruler controlled land, collected tributes, taxes and tolls, regulated markets and trade, and supervised communal labour and the general economy.
7. Custodian of custom and culture: He preserved and upheld the customs, traditions, norms and values of the people and served as a symbol of unity and identity for the community.
8. Maintenance of law, order and peace: He kept peace, ensured security, and reconciled feuding families and groups within the community.

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(a) Meaning of a coup d'etat

A coup d'etat is the sudden, forceful and unconstitutional seizure or overthrow of an existing government, usually by a section of the armed forces or a small group of persons, in violation of the constitution and normally accompanied by the use or threat of force. It replaces the legitimate government with a new set of rulers without recourse to the electorate. A coup may be bloody (violent, involving killings) or bloodless (achieved without loss of life).

(b) Five reasons for military intervention in politics in West Africa

1. Corruption and mismanagement: Widespread corruption, embezzlement of public funds and gross mismanagement of the economy by civilian politicians often provide the military an excuse to intervene in order to sanitise the system.
2. Political instability and disorder: Prolonged political crises, breakdown of law and order, election malpractices and violence create a vacuum which the military moves in to fill.
3. Bad governance and dictatorship: The abuse of power, disregard for the rule of law, suppression of opposition and tyranny by civilian governments provoke military takeover.
4. Personal and selfish ambition of soldiers: The desire of ambitious officers for power, wealth, promotion and prestige drives them to stage coups.
5. Economic hardship and decline: Inflation, unemployment, falling standards of living and general economic collapse breed discontent that the military exploits to seize power.
6. Ethnicity and sectionalism: Ethnic favouritism, marginalisation and the domination of one group by another can push aggrieved soldiers to intervene.
7. Foreign influence: External powers sometimes encourage or sponsor coups to protect their interests.