WAEC SSCE - Geography - 2018 (Essay)

(a) Definition of shifting cultivation

Shifting cultivation is a form of farming in which a piece of land (usually cleared by cutting and burning the bush) is cultivated for a few years until its fertility declines, then abandoned; the farmer moves to clear and cultivate a fresh piece of land, often relocating his settlement as well.

(b) The practice of shifting cultivation in Nigeria

(i) Three characteristics

• Land is cleared by the slash-and-burn method (cutting the vegetation and burning it, the ash acting as fertiliser).
• A plot is cultivated for a few years, then abandoned to fallow when fertility falls, and a new plot is opened.
• Simple tools (hoe and cutlass) and family labour are used; farms are small and mixed cropping is common.

(ii) Two benefits

• Burning and long fallow allow the soil to regain its fertility naturally without chemical fertilisers.
• It requires little capital and simple tools, so it is cheap and suitable for poor farmers.

(iii) Four disadvantages

• It requires large areas of land and is wasteful where land is scarce.
• Output is low, producing little surplus for sale or industry.
• Burning destroys soil organisms and exposes the land to erosion and loss of nutrients.
• Constant movement makes it hard to provide permanent infrastructure and to mechanise.
• Deforestation and destruction of vegetation result from repeated clearing and burning.

(a) Definition of conurbation

A conurbation is a large, continuous built-up urban area formed when several once-separate towns and cities grow outward and merge into one another, so that their boundaries can no longer be clearly distinguished.

(b) One example of a conurbation in two different countries

• United Kingdom: Greater London (or the West Midlands conurbation around Birmingham).
• United States of America: the New York metropolitan conurbation (or Greater Los Angeles).

(Other acceptable examples: Greater Tokyo in Japan; the Ruhr conurbation in Germany.)

(c) Four problems associated with conurbations

• Overcrowding and shortage of housing, leading to slums and high rents.
• Traffic congestion on roads and pressure on transport.
• Environmental pollution (air, water and noise) and waste-disposal problems.
• Pressure on social amenities such as water, electricity, schools and hospitals.
• High crime rates and social vices.
• Unemployment and pressure on job opportunities.

(d) Four solutions to the problems

• Build more housing estates and satellite/new towns to reduce overcrowding.
• Improve and expand the transport system (mass transit, ring roads, flyovers) to ease congestion.
• Provide proper waste-disposal and pollution-control measures and enforce environmental laws.
• Expand and improve social amenities (water, power, schools, hospitals).
• Decentralise industries and administration to other regions to reduce migration into the conurbation.
• Improve security and create employment opportunities.

(a) Sketch map of Nigeria showing one mining area for each mineral

The map below is an outline of Nigeria on which one producing area is marked and named for each of the three minerals: coal at Enugu (south-east), crude oil in the Niger Delta / Port Harcourt (south-south) and limestone at Ewekoro-Sagamu (south-west).

(b) Process of mining coal in Nigeria

Coal in Nigeria (notably at Enugu) is worked mainly by the underground (adit / drift) method, and where seams lie near the surface by the open-cast method.

Underground (adit) method:

1. The overlying soil and rock (overburden) covering the seam are first removed or a tunnel is driven in.
2. A horizontal or gently sloping tunnel (adit) is cut into the hillside to reach the coal seam.
3. Timber props made from strong tree trunks are built to support the roof of the mine and prevent collapse.
4. Fresh air is pumped into the mine by machines to ventilate it, and water is drained out.
5. Explosives may be used to loosen and aid the excavation of the coal seam.
6. Pick-axes, drills and cutting machines are used to break the coal from the seam.
7. Shovels are used to load the broken coal onto tubs or a conveyor belt.
8. The coal is conveyed out of the mine to the surface, then sorted and graded.
9. It is finally transported by rail or truck to the point of consumption or to the ports for export.

Open-cast method (where the seam is shallow): the overburden is stripped off; explosives are used to break the exposed seam; pick-axes and shovels loosen and load the coal; it is conveyed by rail or truck to the processing plant and then to the point of use or export.

(c) Four problems affecting the mining industry in Nigeria

1. Shortage of capital and investment for exploration, machinery and expansion.
2. Inadequate skilled labour and technical expertise, together with the high cost and scarcity of spare parts.
3. Poor transport, infrastructure and erratic power supply to the mining areas.
4. Insecurity, illegal mining and price fluctuation of minerals on the world market, which discourage steady production.

(a) Characteristic features

(i) Conurbation

• It is formed when several once-separate towns and cities grow and merge into one continuous built-up urban area.
• It has a very large total population and covers a large area with continuous built-up land, e.g. Greater London or the West Midlands.

(ii) Megalopolis

• It is a very large urban region formed by the coalescing of several conurbations and cities into a continuous belt of urban development.
• It has an extremely large population spread over a vast area, with heavy interlinking of transport, e.g. the Boston-to-Washington belt (Boswash) in the USA.

(b) Six functions which settlements perform (with examples)

• Administrative function: centres of government, e.g. Abuja (Nigeria) and Washington (USA) as capitals.
• Commercial/trade function: centres of buying and selling, e.g. Lagos, Kano, Onitsha as trading and market towns.
• Industrial/manufacturing function: centres of factories and processing, e.g. Ikeja/Lagos and Pittsburgh.
• Educational function: centres of learning, e.g. Ibadan and Nsukka as university towns.
• Religious function: centres of worship and pilgrimage, e.g. Mecca, Jerusalem and Ile-Ife.
• Port/route (transport) function: ports and route-focus towns, e.g. Port Harcourt, Apapa and Warri.
• Mining function: towns based on mineral extraction, e.g. Enugu (coal) and Jos (tin).
• Resort/tourist and residential functions, e.g. resort towns and dormitory suburbs.

(a) Difference between erosion and mass movement

Erosion is the wearing away and removal of weathered rock and soil from one place and its transport to another by a moving agent such as running water, wind, ice or waves. It always involves a transporting medium.

Mass movement (mass wasting) is the down-slope movement of rock waste, soil and debris under the direct pull of gravity, without a transporting agent like water or wind. Examples include landslides, rock falls, soil creep and mudflows.

In short, erosion needs an agent to carry material away, while mass movement is driven mainly by gravity acting on material on a slope.

(b) Four agents responsible for modifying landforms

• Running water (rivers).
• Wind.
• Moving ice (glaciers).
• Sea waves (marine action).
• (Also gravity/mass movement and underground water.)

(c) Three factors that influence mass movement

• Gradient/steepness of slope: the steeper the slope, the greater and faster the movement.
• Water (moisture) content: water adds weight and lubricates material, making it move more easily; heavy rain triggers landslides and mudflows.
• Nature of the material and rock structure: loose, weak or unconsolidated material moves more readily; the dip of rock beds toward the slope encourages sliding.
• Vegetation cover: plant roots bind the soil and reduce movement; bare slopes move more easily.
• Earth tremors/vibrations and human activity (e.g. undercutting slopes) can also trigger movement.

(a) Five sources of water pollution

• Industrial waste and effluents discharged into rivers and lakes.
• Domestic sewage and human waste.
• Agricultural chemicals (fertilisers, pesticides and herbicides) washed into water bodies.
• Oil spillage from tankers, pipelines and oil-drilling operations.
• Dumping of refuse and solid waste into water bodies.
• Mining waste and toxic tailings.
• Thermal (hot water) discharge from industries.

(b) Five measures to control water pollution

• Treatment of industrial and domestic waste before it is discharged into rivers, seas or lakes.
• Enforcement of anti-pollution laws and penalties against offenders.
• Proper waste disposal: provide sewage systems and refuse dumps away from water bodies, and discourage dumping of refuse into rivers.
• Controlled use of agricultural chemicals (fertilisers and pesticides) and use of organic manure.
• Prompt clean-up and prevention of oil spillage and regular maintenance of pipelines and tankers.
• Public enlightenment and education on the dangers of water pollution.
• Recycling of waste and building of buffer/vegetation strips along water bodies.

(a) Five ways railway transportation has contributed to economic development in Tropical Africa

• Movement of bulky goods: railways carry heavy, bulky cargo such as minerals, timber, cocoa and groundnuts cheaply over long distances from the interior to the ports.
• Opening up of the interior: railways link the hinterland with coastal ports, encouraging the development of agriculture, mining and trade inland.
• Promotion of trade and commerce: they move goods to markets and ports, boosting internal and export trade.
• Employment: railway construction and operation provide many jobs.
• Growth of towns: towns and settlements have grown up along railway lines and around stations (e.g. Kaduna, Kano).
• Movement of people: railways carry passengers and labour cheaply between regions.
• They stimulate industries by delivering raw materials and distributing finished goods.

(b) Five ways of improving railway transportation in Tropical Africa

• Modernise the tracks and rolling stock: replace old, narrow-gauge lines with standard-gauge track and provide modern locomotives and coaches.
• Extend the rail network to new areas and link it with neighbouring countries.
• Provide adequate funding and investment for construction and maintenance.
• Regular maintenance and repair of tracks, bridges and equipment.
• Train skilled personnel (engineers, technicians, operators).
• Improve management and efficiency and reduce corruption; ensure security along the lines.
• Electrify or use modern diesel engines to increase speed and reliability.

(a) Sketch map of Nigeria showing selected manufacturing centres

An outline of Nigeria is drawn below. One important area is located and named for each of the three products required:

• Cement: Sagamu / Ewekoro (Ogun State, south-west), which lies on the limestone belt used for cement production.
• Cocoa products: Ibadan (Oyo State, south-west), a processing centre in the cocoa-growing belt.
• Flour: Kano (Kano State, north), a major flour-milling centre serving the northern grain area.

(b) Three benefits of large-scale manufacturing industries in Nigeria

1. Provision of employment: they absorb a large labour force, thereby reducing unemployment and raising incomes of workers.
2. Revenue generation: they yield revenue to government through company taxes, duties and levies, which finance public services.
3. Foreign-exchange earning and conservation: by exporting finished goods they earn foreign exchange, and by producing locally (import substitution) they conserve the foreign exchange that would have been spent on imports.

Other benefits include the development of social amenities and infrastructure, stimulation of other sectors of the economy (agriculture, mining, transport), growth of towns, and diversification of the economy.

(c) Three advantages of large-scale over small-scale manufacturing industries

1. Lower unit cost of production: large-scale firms enjoy economies of scale, so the cost of producing each unit is lower than in small-scale firms.
2. Greater access to capital: large firms can readily procure funds and credit from financial institutions and attract investment, which small firms cannot easily obtain.
3. Ability to engage in research and use advanced technology: large-scale industries can afford modern machinery and fund research, giving higher productivity and better-quality output.

Additional advantages include more efficient operation and advertisement, higher skill acquisition and manpower development, provision of welfare facilities, and a greater ability to absorb business risks.

(a) Three characteristics of metamorphic rocks

• They are usually hard, compact and crystalline.
• Many show foliation or banding (arrangement of minerals in parallel layers), e.g. gneiss and schist.
• They are generally non-porous and often lack fossils (any fossils present are usually distorted).
• They are formed from pre-existing (parent) rocks that have been changed by heat and/or pressure.

(b) Three modes of formation of metamorphic rock

• Thermal (contact) metamorphism: rocks in contact with hot molten magma are changed by intense heat, e.g. limestone becomes marble.
• Dynamic (regional) metamorphism: great pressure during earth movements (folding and faulting) over large areas changes the rocks, e.g. shale becomes slate then schist.
• Thermo-dynamic metamorphism: combined action of both heat and pressure changes the rock, e.g. granite becomes gneiss.

Common examples: limestone becomes marble; sandstone becomes quartzite; shale/clay becomes slate; coal becomes graphite.

(c) Three economic benefits of rocks

• They supply building and construction materials (marble, granite, limestone for cement, sand and gravel).
• They contain valuable minerals and ores (gold, tin, iron, coal, crude oil) that support mining industries.
• They weather to form fertile soils used for agriculture.
• They store underground water (aquifers) and provide sites for reservoirs and dams.
• Attractive rock scenery attracts tourists; rocks also provide raw materials for industries (e.g. limestone for cement, clay for pottery).

(a) How the following factors have affected world population

1. Advanced technology

• Improved agricultural technology (machines, fertilisers, high-yielding seeds) has raised food production, allowing more people to be fed and reducing deaths from famine, so population grows.
• Industrialisation created jobs and higher incomes and better living standards, encouraging population growth and rural-urban migration.
• Better transport and communication move food and medical help quickly to areas of shortage, lowering death rates.

2. Improved medical care

• Immunisation, drugs and better hospitals have controlled killer diseases, sharply reducing death rates and raising life expectancy.
• Improved maternal and child health care has cut infant and maternal mortality, so more children survive.
• Family-planning services, on the other hand, can lower birth rates where they are widely used, slowing growth in some countries.

(b) Four factors accounting for the high density of population in Java (Indonesia)

• Very fertile volcanic soils that support intensive, high-yielding agriculture, especially wet rice, feeding many people.
• Favourable equatorial/tropical climate with high temperatures and abundant rainfall all year, permitting continuous cultivation.
• Intensive rice cultivation (padi) which supports a very large population per unit area.
• Well-developed transport and long history of settlement, with many towns and good communications.
• Government concentration of administration, industry and commerce on the island, attracting people.

(a) Four ocean routes used in world trade

• The North Atlantic route: links Western Europe with North America; the busiest ocean route.
• The Suez Canal (Mediterranean-Red Sea) route: links Europe with East Africa, the Middle East, India and the Far East.
• The Panama Canal route: links the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, joining eastern North America and Europe with the west coast of America and the Pacific.
• The Cape of Good Hope route: links Europe with West and South Africa and the East via the southern tip of Africa.
• The North Pacific route: links North America (west coast) with East Asia (Japan, China).
• The South Atlantic route: links Europe and North America with South America and West Africa.

(b) Four ways water transportation has contributed to economic development

• It carries bulky and heavy goods (oil, timber, minerals, grain) cheaply over long distances.
• It promotes international trade by linking producing and consuming countries across the world.
• It has led to the growth of port towns and cities and their industries.
• It provides employment for sailors, dockworkers, ship-builders and traders.
• It earns foreign exchange and government revenue through freight charges and port dues.
• It opens up interior regions where rivers and lakes are navigable.

(c) Four ways of improving transportation on inland waterways

• Dredging of rivers and channels to remove silt and deepen them for larger vessels.
• Removal of obstacles such as rocks, sandbanks and floating weeds (e.g. water hyacinth).
• Construction of dams and locks to regulate water level and bypass rapids and waterfalls.
• Canalisation and straightening of winding rivers, and linking rivers by canals.
• Provision of modern port facilities, jetties, warehouses and navigation aids (buoys, lights).
• Regular maintenance and use of modern, powered vessels.

(a) Sketch map of Nigeria

The sketch map below shows the outline of Nigeria with the required features named: the River Niger entering from the north-west and the River Benue entering from the north-east, meeting at their confluence at Lokoja before flowing south to the Niger Delta; the Kainji Dam on the River Niger in the north-west; and Abuja, the Federal Capital, near the centre of the country.

(b) Three factors which favour the development of hydro-electric power (HEP) projects in Nigeria

1. Presence of rapids, waterfalls and a steep gradient. Along the River Niger at sites such as Kainji and Jebba, and along tributaries near Shiroro on the Kaduna River, the land drops sharply. This provides a good \(head\) of water so that fast-falling water can spin the turbines with force.
2. Large and permanent volume of water in the rivers, fed by abundant rainfall. The Niger, the Benue and their tributaries carry a high, reliable volume of water all year round because the country receives heavy seasonal rainfall. A steady supply of water is needed to keep the turbines running continuously.
3. Availability of strong bedrock at suitable dam sites. Narrow valleys with firm, impermeable rock foundations (as at Kainji) allow engineers to build strong dams that can hold back a large reservoir safely without water leaking through the base.

(Other favourable factors include the high demand and market for electricity from a large population and growing industries, and the availability of capital and skilled labour for construction.)

(c) Three economic benefits of hydro-electric power projects

1. Generation of cheap electricity for industrial use, which promotes industrialisation and the growth of new towns.
2. Supply of electricity for domestic use, improving the standard of living in homes and towns.
3. Provision of water for irrigation from the reservoir, boosting agricultural production and food supply. (Further benefits include revenue generation, flood control, employment of workers, fishing and tourism at the reservoir, and improved inland navigation.)

(a) Three characteristics of manufacturing industries in Tropical Africa

• They are mostly light industries that process agricultural and mineral raw materials (e.g. food processing, textiles, tanning) rather than heavy engineering.
• They are small in scale, with low capital investment and limited output serving mainly local markets.
• They are concentrated in a few large towns, ports and mining areas, leaving rural areas largely without industry.
• They depend heavily on imported machinery, spare parts and technical expertise.
• They are largely labour-intensive rather than highly mechanised.

(b) Three ways manufacturing industries contribute to economic development

• Employment: they provide jobs, reducing unemployment and raising incomes.
• Provision of goods: they supply manufactured goods locally, reducing dependence on imports and saving foreign exchange (import substitution).
• Foreign exchange earnings: export of processed goods brings in foreign currency.
• Government revenue through taxes and duties.
• Development of infrastructure (roads, power, water) and growth of towns around industrial centres.
• They add value to local raw materials and stimulate agriculture and mining.

(c) Four problems facing industrial development in Tropical Africa

• Shortage of capital for investment in machinery and plant.
• Inadequate power supply and unreliable electricity.
• Shortage of skilled labour and management and technical know-how.
• Small home markets due to low incomes and poor purchasing power.
• Poor transport and communication networks.
• Competition from cheaper, better-quality imported goods.
• Political instability and unfavourable government policies.

(a) Four ways in which urban settlements differ from one another

• Size of population: some are small towns, others are large cities or conurbations.
• Function: settlements differ in their main activity, e.g. administrative (capital), industrial, commercial, port, mining, religious or educational towns.
• Site and situation: some are coastal, others inland, on hills, along rivers or at route junctions.
• Morphology (shape/pattern): some are planned with regular street patterns, others grow irregularly; shapes may be linear, nucleated or radial.
• Age and level of development: old traditional towns differ from modern planned cities in infrastructure and layout.

(b) Three factors contributing to high population density in Japan

• Highly developed industry and commerce: Japan is one of the world's leading manufacturing nations, attracting people to industrial cities such as Tokyo, Osaka and Nagoya.
• Limited lowland (plains): because Japan is mountainous, people crowd onto the narrow coastal plains, raising density there.
• Intensive, productive agriculture (especially rice) on the fertile lowlands supports a large population.
• Good fishing grounds and a highly developed fishing industry support many people.
• Well-developed transport and trade and a temperate climate favourable to settlement.

(c) Three problems resulting from high population density in Japan

• Overcrowding and shortage of land for housing, leading to very high land and housing costs.
• Pressure on social amenities such as transport, water and health facilities, causing congestion.
• Environmental pollution (air, water and noise) from dense industry and traffic.
• Reclamation of land from the sea and hills at high cost to create more space.
• Traffic congestion in the large cities.

(a) Three characteristics of subsistence agriculture in Nigeria

• Farming is on a small scale, on tiny scattered plots, to feed the farmer and his family with little or no surplus for sale.
• Simple tools such as the hoe and cutlass are used; there is little or no mechanisation.
• It relies on family labour rather than hired workers.
• Mixed cropping (growing several crops on the same plot) is common, and bush fallowing is used to restore soil fertility.
• Output is low and depends heavily on the weather; few or no chemical fertilisers or improved seeds are used.

(b) Four advantages of subsistence agriculture

• It provides food directly for the farmer and his household, ensuring food security at family level.
• It requires little capital, land and simple tools, so it is affordable to poor rural people.
• Mixed cropping reduces the risk of total crop failure and gives a varied diet.
• It provides employment and occupation for rural families.
• Bush fallowing and mixed cropping help conserve soil fertility and reduce erosion.
• Any small surplus can be sold to earn some income.

(c) Three disadvantages of subsistence agriculture

• Output is low, producing little or no surplus for sale or for feeding the growing urban population.
• It cannot support agro-based industries because raw material supply is small and irregular.
• Use of crude tools and small plots keeps productivity and farmers' incomes low.
• It is difficult to mechanise because of small, scattered fragmented holdings.
• Heavy dependence on the weather makes yields unreliable.

(a) Two objectives of ECOWAS

• To promote economic co-operation and integration among member states, aiming at a common market and customs union.
• To ensure the free movement of people, goods, services and capital within the sub-region.
• To raise the standard of living of the people and promote joint development and collective self-reliance.

(b) Four problems hindering the achievement of the objectives of ECOWAS

• Language and colonial barriers: the mix of English, French and Portuguese-speaking members and differing loyalties to former colonial powers hinder unity.
• Similar economies: members produce similar primary goods and so compete rather than trade with one another.
• Poor transport and communication links between member states.
• Different currencies and payment problems between members.
• Political instability, wars and coups in some member states.
• Failure of members to pay contributions and to fully implement agreed protocols.
• Smuggling and mutual suspicion among members.

(c) Four ways the problems can be solved

• Adopt a common currency (e.g. the proposed ECO) to ease trade and payments.
• Improve transport and communication links across member states.
• Diversify member economies so they produce complementary rather than competing goods.
• Maintain peace and political stability, using bodies such as ECOMOG.
• Ensure prompt payment of contributions and full implementation of protocols such as free movement.
• Reduce over-dependence on former colonial powers and build genuine political commitment.

(a) Two advantages of industrialisation in Nigeria

• It creates employment, reducing unemployment and raising incomes.
• It promotes import substitution and earns foreign exchange, so the country depends less on imported goods.
• It adds value to local raw materials and provides government revenue through taxes.

(b) Four problems that retard industrialisation in Nigeria

• Inadequate and unreliable power supply, forcing firms to run costly generators.
• Shortage of capital for investment and high interest rates on loans.
• Shortage of skilled labour and technical manpower.
• Poor transport and infrastructure, raising production costs.
• Competition from cheaper imported goods and dumping.
• Over-dependence on imported machinery and raw materials.
• Political instability and unfavourable government policies.

(c) Four ways the problems could be solved

• Improve and stabilise power supply by investing in and diversifying electricity generation.
• Provide capital through cheap loans, incentives and encouragement of local and foreign investment.
• Train skilled manpower through technical and vocational education.
• Develop transport and infrastructure (roads, rail, ports).
• Protect local industries from unfair imports through tariffs and patronage of made-in-Nigeria goods.
• Develop local raw materials to reduce dependence on imports, and maintain political stability with consistent policies.

(a) Four modes of transportation

• Road transport (vehicles on roads).
• Rail transport (trains on railways).
• Water transport (ships and boats on seas, rivers and lakes).
• Air transport (aeroplanes and helicopters).
• Pipeline transport (for oil, gas and water).

(b) Four constraints to inland water navigation

• Rapids, waterfalls and cataracts that interrupt navigation.
• Silting and sandbanks that make rivers shallow.
• Seasonal variation in water level: many rivers dry up or become too shallow in the dry season.
• Floating vegetation (e.g. water hyacinth) and other obstacles blocking channels.
• Sharp bends and winding courses that slow large vessels.
• Rocks and submerged obstacles.

(c) Four ways the constraints can be solved

• Dredging the rivers to remove silt and deepen the channel.
• Building dams and locks to regulate water level and by-pass rapids and waterfalls.
• Removing rocks, weeds and obstacles, and clearing floating vegetation such as water hyacinth.
• Straightening and canalising winding sections and cutting canals to link rivers.
• Providing navigation aids (buoys, lights) and regular maintenance of the waterway.