WAEC SSCE - Government - 2006

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In the legislature, a filibuster is someone who prevents the passage of a bill by making long speeches. This means that they talk for a really long time to delay or block the passing of a bill. Filibusters are often used as a strategy by politicians who oppose a particular bill or want to draw attention to a particular issue. They can talk for hours or even days in order to prevent the bill from being voted on.

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A manifesto refers to a proposed program or a set of goals and objectives put forward by a political party, candidate, or organization. It outlines their policies, values, and plans for governing or effecting change. A manifesto is usually published before an election or major event, to help voters understand what a party or candidate stands for and what they hope to achieve if elected or supported. The manifesto can also serve as a basis for holding a party or candidate accountable to their promises if they are elected or gain influence.

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The advantage of local governments in West Africa is that they can serve as training grounds for political leaders. This means that individuals who are interested in pursuing a career in politics can gain valuable experience by starting at the local level. By working in local government, they can learn about the challenges facing their communities and develop the skills needed to address these challenges effectively. This experience can help them to become more effective leaders at higher levels of government in the future. Additionally, by serving in local government, these individuals can build relationships with other political leaders and community members that can help them to advance their political careers over time.

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An essential feature of a State is an organized system of laws. This means that a State must have a set of rules and regulations that are recognized and enforced by the government, and apply to all individuals and groups within the State's territory. A system of laws is essential for maintaining order, resolving conflicts, protecting individual rights, and ensuring that the government functions fairly and justly. While mineral resources, developed infrastructure, and developed markets can all be important for a State's prosperity and well-being, they are not essential features of a State in the way that an organized system of laws is.

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The elective principle was introduced in the British colonies after a series of agitations by the educated elite. This means that a group of educated people advocated for the idea of allowing people to vote and elect their leaders, instead of having leaders appointed by the colonial authorities. As a result of their advocacy, the colonial authorities eventually introduced the elective principle, which allowed people to vote for their leaders in the colonies.

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The Judiciary is one of the three branches of government, alongside the Executive and Legislative branches. Its primary role is to interpret the law and ensure that justice is served. This means that the Judiciary is responsible for making legal decisions in cases that come before the court, based on the laws passed by the Legislative branch. The Judiciary does not initiate bills or make laws, which is the responsibility of the Legislative branch. Its main duty is to interpret and apply the law to specific cases. In doing so, the Judiciary plays a critical role in maintaining law and order, by ensuring that individuals and organizations are held accountable for their actions and that disputes are resolved fairly and impartially.

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The country that popularized the use of Indirect Rule by the British was Nigeria. Indirect Rule was a system of colonial administration used by the British during their colonial era in Africa. This system involved ruling through indigenous rulers or chiefs who were appointed by the British colonial authorities to govern their people on their behalf. In Nigeria, the British found it difficult to impose direct rule due to the large number of ethnic groups and cultures in the country. They, therefore, adopted the Indirect Rule system as a way of governing the country. This system allowed the British to rule through the already established traditional rulers in the various regions of Nigeria. The British appointed these traditional rulers as their agents and gave them certain powers to govern their people. This allowed the British to maintain control over Nigeria while at the same time giving the people a sense of autonomy and allowing them to maintain their own traditional systems of governance. Although Indirect Rule was used in other African countries such as Ghana, Sierra Leone, and The Gambia, it was in Nigeria that it was most widely implemented and had the greatest impact.

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Pressure groups are also known as interest groups. These groups are organizations that aim to influence public policies and decisions made by governments, corporations, or other institutions. They do so by exerting pressure on decision-makers through various means, such as lobbying, public demonstrations, and media campaigns. Pressure groups typically represent a specific interest or issue, such as environmental protection, human rights, or business interests. By coming together, they can amplify their voices and try to influence change.

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The official language of the Commonwealth is English. The Commonwealth is an association of countries that were once part of the British Empire, and English was the language of the British colonizers who ruled these countries. Today, many of the countries in the Commonwealth continue to use English as their official language, even though some may also have other official languages, such as French, Spanish, or Dutch. However, it's important to note that not all Commonwealth countries have English as their official language, and some may have more than one official language.

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Police perform all of the following functions except public execution of law breakers. The police are responsible for enforcing the law and maintaining order in society. They protect the lives and property of citizens, and ensure that people can go about their daily lives safely. This includes controlling and directing traffic to prevent accidents and keep traffic moving smoothly. However, it is not the role of the police to carry out public executions of law breakers. The judicial system is responsible for determining guilt or innocence, and the punishment for any crime committed. The police are there to uphold the law, but they do not have the authority to carry out executions or punishments themselves.

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The Secretary-General of the United Nations Organization (UNO) is appointed for a period of five years. This means that the person who is chosen to be the Secretary-General serves in this role for a duration of five years before a new Secretary-General is appointed.

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The concept of decentralization involves transferring power or authority from a central authority to local or regional levels of government or organizations. It typically includes elements such as delegation, devolution, and deconcentration. Delegation involves assigning tasks and responsibilities to lower levels of management, while delimitation involves defining the boundaries of the authority and responsibility that has been delegated. Devolution involves transferring power and responsibility from a higher level of government to a lower level, such as from a national government to a state or local government. This allows for more localized decision-making and can increase efficiency and responsiveness to local needs. Deconcentration involves redistributing administrative responsibilities and functions to different levels of an organization or government, without necessarily changing the overall decision-making authority. This can help to improve efficiency and effectiveness in the delivery of public services. Therefore, all the options mentioned in the question are elements of decentralization, and there are no exceptions.

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Official opposition is a feature of the parliamentary system. In a parliamentary system, the political party with the most elected members becomes the ruling party, while the second-largest party becomes the official opposition. The role of the official opposition is to hold the ruling party accountable by scrutinizing its actions and policies and providing an alternative viewpoint to the government's actions. This helps to ensure that the ruling party is acting in the best interest of the people and not abusing their power. In contrast, totalitarianism, Nazism, and Fascism are all forms of government that do not typically allow for opposition parties or alternative viewpoints, as they aim to maintain complete control and suppress dissent.

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The National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA) was founded in 1919 by J.E. Casely Hayford. He was a lawyer, journalist and author from the Gold Coast (now Ghana) who fought for the rights of African people in British colonies. The NCBWA was formed to unite people across British West Africa in their struggle for self-government and to promote the interests of Africans. It was a pioneering organization that played a major role in shaping the independence movements of the 20th century in West Africa.

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The power to pardon any citizen charged with any criminal offence lies with the Executive branch of government. The Executive branch is responsible for implementing and enforcing the laws of the country. The President or the Governor, depending on the level of government, has the power to grant a pardon or reprieve to a person who has been convicted of a crime. This power is usually used in cases where the person has been wrongly convicted or has served a significant amount of time in prison. It is also used as a way to show mercy or compassion to an individual who has committed a crime. The legislature makes laws, the judiciary interprets laws and humang rights organizations promote and protect human rights.

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The military intervenes in West African politics mainly because of election malpractices. Sometimes, politicians rig elections or use other unfair means to win elections. When this happens, it can lead to political instability, violence, and even civil war. The military may feel that they need to intervene to restore order and prevent the country from descending into chaos. However, military intervention in politics can also be harmful and undemocratic, as it can lead to the suppression of civil liberties and the concentration of power in the hands of a few individuals.

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Public corporations are financed by taxpayers. This means that the money used to fund these corporations comes from the public, through taxes paid to the government. Public corporations are owned by the government and exist to provide services to the public. The government uses the money collected from taxes to finance the operations of these corporations, such as building infrastructure, providing healthcare or education, and managing public resources.

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The United Nations Organization (UNO) was founded in 1945 as a successor to the League of Nations. The League of Nations was an international organization created after World War I to prevent future wars by promoting international cooperation and resolving conflicts peacefully. However, it was unable to prevent the outbreak of World War II. After the war, a new organization was needed to promote peace and cooperation among nations, and the United Nations was created for this purpose. The UNO is made up of member countries from around the world who work together on issues such as peace and security, human rights, and sustainable development.

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The number of chambers in a bicameral legislature is two. Bicameral means having two separate chambers or houses. In a bicameral legislature, there are two houses, usually with different names, such as the House of Representatives and the Senate. Each house has its own set of responsibilities and powers, and both houses must agree on legislation before it can become law. This system is designed to provide a system of checks and balances, ensuring that no one group has too much power over the legislative process.

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The modern ideal of democracy includes unlimited freedom, civil liberty, periodic elections, and equality before the law. However, it is important to note that the concept of "unlimited freedom" is not an accurate representation of democracy. Democracy involves a balance between individual rights and the collective good of society. This means that there are limits to individual freedom in order to protect the well-being of others and prevent harm to society as a whole. In summary, the modern ideal of democracy includes civil liberties, periodic elections, and equality before the law, but it does not promote unlimited freedom without regard for the well-being of others.

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Indirect rule was successfully implemented in some parts of West Africa because it allowed the British to use the existing traditional political structure to govern, instead of imposing their own system. This meant that local rulers and chiefs were given some power to govern their own people, under the overall authority of the British. Additionally, British officials learnt the local languages, which helped them communicate with and understand the local people better. The residents were also good administrators, which made it easier for the British to work with them to govern the region. Overall, indirect rule was successful because it allowed for a more flexible and efficient system of governance that respected local customs and traditions.

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Public opinion refers to the collective viewpoint or perspective held by a particular group of people, usually citizens of a country or members of a community. It reflects the general attitudes, beliefs, and values of the people regarding a particular issue, event, or policy. Therefore, public opinion is usually determined by the majority of the population rather than a minority. While civil servants and politicians may be influential in shaping public opinion, they are not the sole holders of it.

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In a cabinet system of government, the ministers are collectively responsible to the parliament. This means that they are accountable to the elected representatives of the people for their actions and decisions. If the parliament is not satisfied with the performance of the government, it can pass a vote of no confidence, which may lead to the resignation of the entire cabinet. This system ensures that the government is accountable to the people and that the parliament has the power to hold it to account.

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Anonymity of civil servants means that they do not take praise or blame for their performance. It means that the identity of civil servants who work for the government or public sector is kept confidential. This is done to ensure that they can carry out their duties without fear of intimidation or victimization. The anonymity of civil servants allows them to make impartial decisions and provide honest advice to their superiors without any fear of retribution. Civil servants should be seen and heard when carrying out their official duties, but their personal opinions and political affiliations should not influence their work. They should not engage in partisan politics, but rather work hard to serve the public interest and implement government policies to the best of their abilities. Ultimately, the anonymity of civil servants helps to promote transparency, accountability, and good governance in the public sector.

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The modern concept of the rule of law was introduced by A.V. Dicey. This concept is based on the idea that everyone is subject to the law, including government officials and institutions. Dicey believed that the rule of law was an essential part of a free and democratic society, as it ensures that individuals are not subject to arbitrary or unjust treatment by those in power. Dicey's concept of the rule of law includes three main principles: 1. The supremacy of the law, meaning that the law is the highest authority in the land and no one is above it. 2. Equality before the law, meaning that everyone is subject to the same laws and is entitled to the same legal protections and rights. 3. The constitution is the result of the ordinary law of the land, meaning that the constitution is not a separate document, but is derived from the ordinary law and customs of the country. Overall, Dicey's concept of the rule of law has had a significant impact on the development of modern legal systems around the world.

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The verdicts of judges that are binding on lower courts are called "precedents". This means that when a higher court, such as a supreme court, makes a decision on a legal issue, that decision sets a precedent that must be followed by lower courts in similar cases. Precedents are important because they help ensure consistency and predictability in the legal system.

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A constitution is said to be flexible when its provisions are easy to amend. This means that the rules and regulations that govern a country can be changed or modified with relative ease. This can be helpful in situations where the government needs to adapt to new circumstances or address issues that were not foreseen when the constitution was originally written. In contrast, a constitution that is difficult to amend is considered to be rigid, which can make it harder to address important issues in a timely manner.

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The two components of sovereignty are legal independence and political authority. Legal independence means that a state has the power to make its own laws without interference from other countries. This means that it has the right to govern itself and make decisions without outside influence. Political authority refers to the ability of a state to exercise power and control over its own territory and people. This includes the power to make and enforce laws, maintain order, and defend its borders. Together, legal independence and political authority are the foundation of a state's sovereignty. They enable a state to govern itself and to be recognized as an independent entity by other states in the international community.

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Giving alms to the poor is not a duty of a citizen. A duty is a responsibility that someone is required to fulfill, and it is usually backed by law or moral obligation. Obedience to the laws is a duty because laws are put in place to ensure order and protect the rights of citizens. Payment of taxes is also a duty because taxes are used to provide public goods and services like healthcare, education, and infrastructure. Service to the nation can be considered a duty because it involves doing something for the benefit of the country, such as joining the military or volunteering for community service. On the other hand, giving alms to the poor is an act of charity or kindness, but it is not a legal or moral obligation for citizens. While it is good to help those in need, citizens are not required by law or duty to give alms to the poor.

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The system of government in which authority is shared between the central or federal government and the component units, such as states or provinces, is called a federal system of government. In a federal system, the central government has certain powers, while the component units also have powers of their own that are protected by the constitution. This means that each state or province can have some degree of autonomy and self-governance within its own boundaries, while still being part of a larger nation or union. This system of sharing power and responsibility can help to ensure that local issues are addressed by local leaders who have a better understanding of the specific needs and challenges of their communities.

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The constitutional created account into which all public revenue is paid is called the Consolidated Fund. The Consolidated Fund is a type of government account that is established by a country's constitution or legislation. It serves as the main account for all government revenue and is used to meet the expenses of the government, such as public debt payments, salaries of civil servants, and capital expenditures. All revenue collected by the government, including taxes, fees, and other forms of income, are paid into the Consolidated Fund. Withdrawals from the fund can only be made through a specific authorization, such as a budget appropriation or legislative approval. This ensures that government expenditures are properly accounted for and that the funds are used for their intended purpose. Overall, the Consolidated Fund is an important tool for promoting transparency and accountability in government finances.

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The Notational Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA) failed to achieve its aims initially because the chiefs and governors opposed those aims. The NCBWA was formed in 1920 by a group of West African intellectuals who wanted to push for political reforms and greater representation for Africans in the British colonial government. However, the colonial authorities saw the NCBWA as a threat to their power and influence and worked to undermine its efforts. In addition, many traditional chiefs and rulers were opposed to the NCBWA's goals, as they feared that greater political representation for Africans would diminish their own power and influence. Some chiefs even encouraged their subjects to boycott the congress and not participate in its activities. Overall, the opposition from colonial authorities and traditional rulers made it difficult for the NCBWA to achieve its goals in the early years. However, the congress continued to push for reforms and greater representation over time, and its efforts played a role in the eventual independence of many West African nations in the mid-20th century.

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A coup d'état is an unconstitutional way of changing the government. It occurs when a group, often military or political, overthrows the existing government by force, without following the legal and constitutional process for changing the government. Coup d'états are typically seen as a violation of democratic principles and the rule of law, and can result in human rights abuses, instability, and violence. Therefore, they are generally condemned by the international community.

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The concept of decentralization refers to the transfer of power and decision-making authority from a central authority to lower levels of government or organization. It includes delegation, devolution, and deconcentration. Delegation refers to the process of assigning responsibility and authority to someone else, while the delegating authority retains overall control. Devolution is the transfer of power and resources from a central government to lower levels, such as regional or local governments. Deconcentration involves the delegation of administrative functions and decision-making powers to lower levels within a centralized structure, such as different departments or offices within a single organization. Therefore, the concept of decentralization includes all of the above elements, and there is no element excluded from it.

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The principle that negates the concept of the Rule of Law is the "Exercise of absolute power by the President." The Rule of Law is a fundamental principle that means no one is above the law, and everyone is equal before the law. It ensures that the law is supreme and that all individuals and government officials are subject to the same laws. However, if the President exercises absolute power, it means that they are not bound by the law, and they can act arbitrarily without being held accountable. This negates the principle of the Rule of Law as it allows for the exercise of unchecked power, which can lead to abuses of power and violations of fundamental rights.

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The political system that allows equal access to the means of production, distribution, and exchange is called socialism. In a socialist system, the government or the community owns and controls the resources and industries, and everyone has an equal opportunity to benefit from them. The aim of socialism is to create a society that is more equal and fair, with a focus on providing for the needs of all its citizens rather than just the privileged few.

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Methods used by pre-colonial chiefs (traditional rulers) to control their subjects

1. Use of religion and divine kingship: Chiefs were often regarded as sacred, semi-divine or the intermediary between the people and the gods and ancestors. This religious sanction made subjects obey out of reverence and fear of supernatural punishment.
2. Administration of justice: The chief and his council settled disputes, tried offenders and imposed sanctions such as fines, banishment or death. Control over justice kept subjects in order.
3. Use of a council of elders/chiefs: The ruler governed with a council of titled men and elders who represented the wards and clans, transmitting the chief's decisions to the people and securing their compliance.
4. Taxation and tribute: Chiefs demanded tributes, levies, gifts and labour from their subjects. The obligation to pay bound the people to the authority of the ruler.
5. Control of the army/warriors: Chiefs maintained warriors and age-grade militias used to defend the community, enforce decisions and punish rebellious subjects.
6. Use of age-grades and secret societies: Institutions such as age-grades, cults and masquerade (e.g. Ogboni, Ekpe) enforced laws, executed judgments and maintained social discipline on behalf of the ruler.

(Other acceptable points: reward system through titles and land grants, control of trade and markets, use of customs, taboos and oaths.)

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Delegated (or subsidiary) legislation refers to laws made by persons or bodies other than the legislature, acting under powers conferred on them by an enabling Act of the legislature.

(a) Three types of delegated legislation

1. Orders in Council: Rules made by the executive (the President or Governor in Council) under powers granted by the legislature, often used in emergencies.
2. Ministerial orders, rules and regulations: Detailed rules made by ministers or heads of ministries to give effect to the provisions of an Act within their area of responsibility.
3. Bye-laws: Local laws made by local government councils or statutory corporations to regulate matters within their areas of authority.

(Other examples include provisional orders and rules of court made by the judiciary.)

(b) Three reasons for the control of delegated legislation

1. To prevent abuse of power: Control ensures that the bodies exercising delegated powers do not exceed or misuse the authority granted to them.
2. To keep it within the limits of the enabling Act: Control ensures that the subsidiary law does not go beyond (is not ultra vires) the powers conferred by the parent Act.
3. To protect the rights and liberties of citizens: Control safeguards citizens against oppressive or unjust rules made without proper legislative scrutiny.
4. To maintain the supremacy of the legislature: Control ensures that ultimate law-making authority remains with the elected legislature.

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(a) Four features of Nigerian Federalism

1. A written and rigid constitution: The powers of the federal and state governments are clearly spelt out in a supreme, written constitution that cannot be easily amended.
2. Division of powers: Powers are shared among the levels of government through the Exclusive Legislative List (federal), the Concurrent List (federal and state) and residual matters (states).
3. Existence of two or more tiers of government: There are the federal, state and local governments, each with its own defined functions and areas of authority.
4. Supremacy of the constitution: The constitution is the highest law of the land; any law inconsistent with it is null and void, and a Supreme Court interprets disputes between the tiers.

(Other acceptable features: a bicameral legislature at the centre; existence of federal and state institutions; revenue-sharing/fiscal arrangement; an independent judiciary as arbiter.)

(b) Two problems confronting Nigerian Federalism

1. Ethnicity and mutual distrust: Rivalry and suspicion among the many ethnic groups threaten national unity and complicate power-sharing.
2. Revenue allocation disputes: Persistent disagreement over the formula for sharing national revenue among the tiers and among states breeds tension.

(Other acceptable problems: over-concentration of power and resources at the centre; agitation for creation of more states; religious and regional differences; resource-control conflicts.)

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(a) Two objectives of the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC)

1. To achieve self-government and independence for Nigeria: The party sought the termination of British colonial rule and the attainment of political freedom.
2. To promote national unity: It aimed to weld the various peoples of Nigeria into one nation and to foster a spirit of common nationhood across ethnic and regional lines.

(Other acceptable objectives: to raise the political consciousness of the people, to protect the interests and welfare of Nigerians, to secure a truly national and democratic constitution.)

(b) Four achievements of the NCNC

1. It championed the independence struggle: Under leaders such as Herbert Macaulay and Nnamdi Azikiwe, it was in the forefront of the nationalist agitation that led to Nigeria's independence in 1960.
2. It raised national political consciousness: Through its newspapers and mass rallies it awakened political awareness and educated Nigerians on their rights.
3. It formed governments: The NCNC controlled the government of the Eastern Region and, at various times, participated in coalition governments at the centre, thereby gaining administrative experience for Nigerians.
4. It led the 1947 delegation to Britain: The party organised a delegation to London to protest against the Richards Constitution, demonstrating organised opposition to imposed constitutions.

(Other acceptable achievements: it broadened its membership across ethnic groups as a pan-Nigerian party; it produced prominent nationalist leaders; it contributed to constitutional advancement.)

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(a) Government as an academic field of study

As an academic field of study, Government is a branch of the social sciences that deals with the systematic study of the state, its institutions, the principles and processes of governing, political power and authority, and the relationship between the state and its citizens as well as between states. It examines how societies are organised and controlled, how power is acquired, distributed and exercised, and the rights and duties of citizens.

(b) Three branches of Government

1. The Legislature: This is the law-making arm of government. It makes new laws, amends or repeals existing ones, approves the budget, and checks or controls the activities of the executive.
2. The Executive: This is the arm that implements and enforces the laws made by the legislature. It formulates and carries out government policies, maintains law and order, conducts foreign affairs and administers the day-to-day business of the state.
3. The Judiciary: This is the arm that interprets the laws and settles disputes. It presides over cases, punishes offenders, protects the rights of citizens and ensures that the laws are applied justly and that the constitution is upheld.

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(a) Meaning of foreign policy

Foreign policy is the set of principles, objectives and strategies which a state adopts and pursues in its dealings and relations with other states and international organisations, in order to protect and promote its national interests in the international community.

(b) Three reasons for the adoption of Africa as the centre-piece of Nigeria's foreign policy

1. Geographical and historical ties: Nigeria is an African country sharing a common continent, history of colonialism and cultural affinity with other African states, making Africa the natural focus of its external relations.
2. To lead the struggle against colonialism and apartheid: Nigeria committed itself to the total liberation of Africa from colonial and racist rule, supporting liberation movements in countries such as Angola, Zimbabwe and South Africa.
3. To promote African unity and economic cooperation: By making Africa the centre-piece, Nigeria could foster continental solidarity through bodies like the OAU/AU and ECOWAS and pursue regional peace and development.

(Other acceptable reasons: to enhance Nigeria's leadership role and prestige in Africa; to promote economic integration and trade within the continent; to maintain peace and security in the West African sub-region.)

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(a) Two methods used by nationalist leaders to oppose British rule in West Africa

1. Formation of political parties and movements: Nationalists organised parties (e.g. NCNC, Action Group, NPC, the NNDP) to mobilise the people and press constitutional demands for self-government.
2. Use of the press and public enlightenment: They established newspapers (such as the West African Pilot) and held rallies to criticise colonial rule, educate the masses and rouse nationalist feeling.

(Other acceptable methods: strikes, boycotts and demonstrations; petitions and delegations to Britain; participation in constitutional conferences; formation of trade unions and youth movements.)

(b) Four external factors that led to increased nationalist demands after the Second World War

1. Experience of ex-servicemen: West African soldiers who fought abroad saw that whites could be defeated and returned home with heightened political awareness and a demand for freedom.
2. The Atlantic Charter (1941): The declaration by Britain and the USA affirming the right of all peoples to choose their own government encouraged colonies to demand self-determination.
3. Formation of the United Nations: The UN Charter's emphasis on self-determination and decolonisation gave moral support to nationalist agitation.
4. The independence of India and other Asian countries: The granting of independence to India, Pakistan and others in the late 1940s inspired West Africans to demand the same.

(Other acceptable factors: influence of Pan-Africanism and the 1945 Manchester Congress; rise of the USA and USSR as anti-colonial super-powers; the weakened economic and military position of Britain after the war; activities of Africans educated abroad.)

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A political party is an organised group of people who share common political ideas and aims, and who come together to contest elections in order to win power and control the machinery of government.

(a) Three functions of a political party

1. Contesting elections and forming government: A party selects and sponsors candidates for elective offices and, when it wins, forms the government and runs the affairs of the state.
2. Political education and mobilisation: It educates and enlightens the citizens on political issues, mobilises them to participate in the political process, and shapes public opinion.
3. Serving as a link between the government and the people: It conveys the wishes, needs and grievances of the people to the government and explains government policies to the people.
4. Providing opposition and checking government: Parties out of power form the opposition, criticise and check the government, and offer alternative policies.

(b) Three problems of political parties

1. Inadequate finance: Many parties lack sufficient funds to organise, campaign and maintain their structures effectively.
2. Ethnicity and tribalism: Parties are often formed and supported along ethnic, religious or regional lines, which weakens national unity and internal cohesion.
3. Internal wrangling and indiscipline: Disagreements over leadership, nomination of candidates and sharing of positions cause factions, defections and instability.
4. Absence of clear ideology: Many parties lack a clear, consistent philosophy or programme, so members join and leave for selfish rather than principled reasons.

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(a) Three reasons for holding elections in a state

1. To choose representatives: Elections enable citizens to select the persons who will occupy public offices and exercise governmental power on their behalf, since direct democracy is impracticable in large modern states.
2. To confer legitimacy and consent: A government that emerges from a free election derives its authority from the will of the people. This popular mandate gives the leaders the moral and legal right to govern.
3. To ensure political accountability and change of government: Periodic elections allow the electorate to renew the mandate of good leaders and to peacefully remove poor performers, thereby holding office-holders answerable for their conduct.

(Other acceptable reasons: to give effect to popular participation, to reflect the wishes of the majority, to provide an orderly and peaceful means of transferring power.)

(b) Three factors that can disqualify a person from voting in a democracy

1. Age: A person below the constitutionally prescribed voting age (18 years in Nigeria) is not eligible to vote.
2. Unsound mind / insanity: A person certified to be of unsound mind lacks the capacity to make a rational electoral choice and is disqualified.
3. Non-registration: A citizen whose name does not appear on the voters' register cannot vote, since registration is a condition for exercising the franchise.

(Other acceptable factors: non-citizenship/alien status, conviction for a criminal offence or serving a prison term, failure to satisfy a residence qualification.)

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(a) Four reasons for the adoption of the Indirect Rule System

1. Shortage of British personnel: Britain did not have enough trained European administrators to govern the vast territory directly, so existing traditional rulers were used.
2. Financial economy: Governing through local chiefs who were already paid by their people was far cheaper than establishing a large, expensive European bureaucracy.
3. Existence of well-organised traditional institutions: Especially in Northern Nigeria, the emirs already had an established system of administration, taxation and justice that could be adapted for colonial purposes.
4. Problem of language and communication: Ruling through familiar local chiefs overcame the barriers of language and custom between the British and the local people, making acceptance easier.

(Other acceptable reasons: to avoid resistance and maintain peace, to preserve traditional institutions and customs, vast distance and poor transport making direct rule difficult.)

(b) Two achievements of the Indirect Rule System

1. It preserved traditional institutions: Native authorities, chieftaincy and customary courts were retained, keeping local culture and administration intact.
2. It provided cheap and relatively peaceful administration: Using local rulers kept the cost of government low and maintained law and order with minimal European staff.

(Other acceptable achievements: it developed native treasuries and local taxation, it trained some Nigerians in administration, it laid a foundation for local government.)

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(a) Three features of a Written Constitution

1. Documented in a single, formal document: The main principles and rules of government are deliberately gathered and written down in one authoritative document.
2. Rigid and difficult to amend: It usually provides a special, more difficult procedure for amendment (such as a two-thirds majority or referendum), so it cannot be changed easily.
3. Supremacy of the constitution: The written constitution is the supreme law of the land, and any law or action inconsistent with it is null and void.
4. Product of deliberate effort: It is normally drawn up at a particular point in time, often by a constituent assembly or conference, and comes into force on a specific date.
5. Guarantees fundamental human rights: It usually contains a clearly entrenched bill of fundamental rights.

(b) Three reasons for the adoption of a Unitary Constitution

1. Small size of the country: A country small in area and population can conveniently be governed from a single centre, making a unitary system suitable.
2. Homogeneous population: Where the people share a common language, culture and outlook, there is little need to divide power, so a unitary system fits.
3. Need for strong central government and unity: A unitary system concentrates power at the centre, giving strong, united and effective leadership and quick decision-making.
4. Economy of administration: It avoids the duplication of governmental structures found in federations and is therefore cheaper to run.

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(a) Four organs of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)

1. The Authority of Heads of State and Government: the supreme organ that gives general direction and takes major decisions.
2. The Council of Ministers: which makes recommendations to the Authority and oversees the functioning of the community.
3. The Community Parliament: the representative/advisory assembly of the peoples of member states.
4. The Community Court of Justice: which interprets the treaty and settles disputes among member states.

(Other acceptable organs: the Executive Secretariat/Commission; the specialised technical commissions; the ECOWAS Bank for Investment and Development.)

(b) Four obstacles hindering the implementation of the aims and objectives of ECOWAS

1. Multiplicity of currencies: The existence of different national currencies of varying value hampers the free movement of goods, trade and a common market.
2. Colonial language and cultural differences: The division between anglophone, francophone and lusophone states creates barriers to cooperation and mutual trust.
3. Political instability: Frequent coups, civil wars and internal conflicts in member states disrupt cooperation and integration.
4. Loyalty of francophone states to France: The strong economic and political ties of French-speaking members to France divide their allegiance and weaken commitment to ECOWAS.

(Other acceptable obstacles: inadequate funding and failure of members to pay dues; poor transport and communication links; over-dependence of members on external powers; fear of Nigerian domination; smuggling and border problems.)