WAEC SSCE - Chemistry - 2007

Answer Details

NaHCO₃ solution is commonly used as a test for carboxylic acids. When a carboxylic acid is added to NaHCO₃ solution, it reacts to produce carbon dioxide gas, water, and a sodium carboxylate salt. Therefore, the pair of substances that can be distinguished by use of NaHCO₃ solution is: - CH₃CH₂OH and CH₃COOH CH₃CH₂OH is ethanol, which is not a carboxylic acid, and therefore does not react with NaHCO₃ solution. CH₃COOH is ethanoic acid, which is a carboxylic acid, and reacts with NaHCO₃ solution to produce carbon dioxide gas. The other options cannot be distinguished using NaHCO₃ solution because they do not involve carboxylic acids.

Answer Details

The method that can be used to separate a mixture of two miscible liquids with different boiling points is distillation. Distillation is a process of separating the components of a mixture based on their different boiling points. In this process, the mixture is heated to its boiling point, and the vapor is condensed and collected. The component with the lower boiling point will vaporize first and will be collected as the distillate, while the component with the higher boiling point will remain in the distillation flask. Therefore, by using distillation, the two liquids can be separated based on their boiling points. The other options, such as decantation, evaporation, and filtration, are not suitable for separating two miscible liquids with different boiling points.

Answer Details

Alkenes are hydrocarbons that contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond in their structure. The double bond makes alkenes more reactive than alkanes (saturated hydrocarbons) and capable of undergoing several types of reactions, such as addition, hydration, and polymerization. However, alkenes do not undergo substitution reactions, which involve the replacement of one atom or group of atoms in a molecule with another atom or group of atoms. This is because the double bond in alkenes is too strong to break under normal conditions, which makes it difficult to substitute an atom or group of atoms in the molecule. Therefore, the correct answer to the question is substitution. Alkenes do not undergo substitution reactions.

Answer Details

The electronegativity difference between two elements determines the type of bond that can be formed between them. When the difference in electronegativity is large, one element attracts the electrons in the bond more strongly than the other, resulting in the formation of an ionic bond. Therefore, if the difference between the electronegativities of two elements is large, the type of bond that can be formed between them is ionic.

Answer Details

Answer Details

Iron is extracted from haematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4) ores. Bauxite (Al2O3), on the other hand, is an ore of aluminum, while cassiterite (SnO2) is an ore of tin. Therefore, the correct option is (b) l and lll only.

Answer Details

Among the given compounds, only HF has hydrogen bonds between its molecules. Hydrogen bonding occurs when a hydrogen atom is bonded to a highly electronegative element like fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen, and this hydrogen atom interacts with another electronegative atom from another molecule. In the case of HF, the hydrogen atom is bonded to the highly electronegative fluorine atom, and this hydrogen atom forms a hydrogen bond with the fluorine atom of another HF molecule. HBr, HCl, and HI have covalent bonds between their molecules, but they don't have hydrogen bonds because the hydrogen atoms are not bonded to highly electronegative atoms like fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen.

Answer Details

The statement that is true of the molecules of a gas under ideal conditions is that they move at random. In the kinetic theory of gases, it is assumed that gas molecules are in constant random motion, colliding with each other and the walls of their container. This movement is what gives gases their pressure, as the molecules collide with the walls of the container and exert a force. The other options are not true of ideal gases. Gas molecules under ideal conditions undergo perfectly elastic collisions, meaning they do not lose any kinetic energy during their collisions. They do not attract each other, as they are assumed to be point masses with no intermolecular forces, and they occupy a small volume, as they are assumed to have no volume themselves, but only occupy the space in the container they are in.

Answer Details

To find the molar mass of the salt (z), we need to use the formula: concentration (mol dm^-3) = number of moles / volume (dm³) We are given the concentration of the solution as 0.80 mol dm^-3 and the volume of the solution as 250 cm³ which is equivalent to 0.250 dm³. Therefore, we can rearrange the above formula to find the number of moles of the salt (z): number of moles = concentration x volume number of moles = 0.80 x 0.250 number of moles = 0.200 Now we can use the formula: molar mass (g mol^-1) = mass (g) / number of moles We are given the mass of the salt (z) as 14.8 g. Therefore: molar mass = 14.8 / 0.200 molar mass = 74.0 g mol^-1 Therefore, the molar mass of the salt (z) is 74.0 g mol^-1.

Answer Details

The IUPAC name of the compound represented by the molecular formula NaClO₄ is Sodium tetraoxochlorate (VII). This is because the chlorate ion has a charge of -1 and contains four oxygen atoms, which gives it the formula ClO₄^-. The Roman numeral in the compound's name represents the oxidation state of chlorine in the ion, which is +7 in this case. Therefore, the correct name is Sodium tetraoxochlorate (VII).

Answer Details

The finely divided iron catalyst is used to shorten the time for the attainment of equilibrium in the reaction. A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without undergoing any permanent change itself. In the Haber process, which is the industrial process for the production of ammonia, the reaction is slow at room temperature and pressure, even though the overall enthalpy change (∆H) is negative (exothermic). By adding a catalyst such as finely divided iron, the activation energy required for the reaction to proceed is lowered, which speeds up the reaction and allows the system to attain equilibrium faster. This results in a higher yield of ammonia in a shorter amount of time.

Answer Details

Ethanol is a suitable solvent for perfumes. Ethanol is a type of alcohol that can dissolve various types of compounds, including oils and aromatic compounds, which are the main components of perfumes. This property of ethanol makes it an ideal solvent for perfumes. In contrast, benzene and turpentine are toxic and not safe for use in perfumes. Water, on the other hand, is a polar solvent and is not suitable for dissolving non-polar aromatic compounds present in perfumes.

Answer Details

Answer Details

An atom becomes an ion by either gaining or losing electrons. When an atom gains an electron, it forms a negative ion (anion) which is larger than its corresponding neutral atom because the added electron increases the electron-electron repulsion and pushes the other electrons further away from the nucleus. Conversely, when an atom loses an electron, it forms a positive ion (cation) which is smaller than its corresponding neutral atom because the lost electron reduces the electron-electron repulsion and the remaining electrons are pulled closer to the nucleus. From the given options, only Chlorine (Cl) gains an electron to form a chloride ion (Cl⁻) which is larger than its atomic radius. The other elements (Na, Mg, and Al) lose electrons to form cations which are smaller than their atomic radii. Therefore, the correct answer is Chlorine (Cl).

Answer Details

Answer Details

During the electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride solution using carbon electrodes, the product formed at the cathode is hydrogen. In this process, the chloride ions (Cl⁻) in the solution are attracted to the anode (positive electrode) and undergo oxidation to form chlorine gas (Cl₂) while water (H₂O) molecules are reduced at the cathode (negative electrode) to form hydrogen gas (H₂) and hydroxide ions (OH⁻). The overall reaction can be represented as: 2NaCl + 2H₂O → 2NaOH + H₂ + Cl₂ Since the electrolysis is carried out using carbon electrodes, neither sodium nor oxygen is produced at the electrodes as these reactions would require a more reactive electrode material than carbon. Thus, the product formed at the cathode is hydrogen gas.

Answer Details

The process illustrated below is the formation of a saturated solution of a solid. The solid S is in equilibrium with its dissolved form in water, represented by the double-headed arrow. The symbol (s) indicates that S is a solid, while (aq) represents the aqueous or dissolved form of S. When the maximum amount of S has been dissolved in the water, the solution is saturated. This process is often used in chemistry to determine the solubility of a solid in water or other solvents.

Answer Details

When air is passed through sodium hydroxide solution, carbon (IV) oxide and water vapour are removed as they react with the alkali to form sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogencarbonate respectively. The remaining gases, which are mainly nitrogen, are passed through alkaline pyrogallol to remove any remaining oxygen, as it reacts with the pyrogallol to form brown precipitate. The nitrogen gas is then passed through concentrated tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid to remove any remaining traces of water vapour. Therefore, the remaining components of air after the above process are nitrogen gas and noble gases such as argon, helium, neon and krypton, which are present in very small amounts. Hence, the correct option is nitrogen and noble gases.

Answer Details

Answer Details

In the given chemical equation, Ca(OH)₂ reacts with CO₂ to form CaCO₃ and H₂O. Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is a non-metallic oxide and when it reacts with water, it forms carbonic acid (H₂CO₃). The equation can be written as CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃ Carbonic acid is a weak acid that can donate H+ ions to form HCO₃^- ions. The HCO₃^- ions formed then react with Ca²⁺ ions present in Ca(OH)₂ to form CaCO₃ and H₂O. Thus, CO₂ acts as an acidic oxide in the given reaction. Therefore, the answer is "an acidic oxide".

Answer Details

Ammonia (NH₃) is lighter than air. This is because its molar mass is lower than that of air, which is mostly composed of nitrogen and oxygen. When released into the air, ammonia gas rises due to the buoyancy force exerted by the air around it. In contrast, carbon dioxide (CO₂), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), and hydrogen chloride (HCl) are heavier than air and tend to settle towards the ground when released.

Answer Details

Answer Details

Pig-iron is brittle because it contains a high percentage of carbon as impurity. Pig-iron is the product obtained from the smelting of iron ores in a blast furnace. It is a crude form of iron and contains about 4% carbon, along with other impurities such as silicon, sulfur, and phosphorus. The high percentage of carbon in pig-iron makes it brittle and weak, as it tends to form carbon inclusions in the iron matrix, leading to cracks and fractures under stress. Therefore, pig-iron needs to be refined further to remove impurities, including carbon, to make it stronger and more ductile.

Answer Details

The oxidation number of an element is the charge it would have in a compound if electrons were completely transferred. In K₂CrO₄, the compound is neutral (has no net charge) so we can determine the oxidation number of chromium by adding up the oxidation numbers of all the atoms in the compound and setting the sum equal to zero. The oxidation number of K (potassium) is +1 since it is an alkali metal and forms a +1 ion in compounds. The oxidation number of O (oxygen) is -2 since it usually forms -2 ions in compounds, except in peroxides where it is -1. Let x be the oxidation number of chromium (Cr). So we have: 2(+1) + x + 4(-2) = 0 Simplifying this equation gives: x - 6 = 0 x = +6 Therefore, the oxidation number of chromium in K₂CrO₄ is +6.

Answer Details

To solve this problem, we need to use the formula: number of moles = mass / molar mass From the periodic table, the molar mass of hydrogen (H) is 1 g/mol. Therefore, the number of moles of H2 present in 0.5 g is: number of moles = 0.5 g / 2 g/mol = 0.25 mol At standard temperature and pressure (s.t.p), 1 mole of any gas occupies 22.4 dm^3. Therefore, 0.25 moles of H2 will occupy: volume = number of moles x 22.4 dm^3/mol = 0.25 x 22.4 dm^3 = 5.6 dm^3 Therefore, the correct answer is: 5.6 dm^3.

Answer Details

The ionic radius of an atom generally increases down a group in the periodic table. The reason for this trend is that as you move down a group, the number of electron shells increases, meaning that the atomic size increases. This leads to a decrease in the effective nuclear charge, which reduces the attraction between the nucleus and the outermost electrons, allowing them to spread out and occupy a larger volume. As a result, the ionic radius of the atoms in the group increases, making them larger in size.

Answer Details

The white precipitate formed by the reaction of the salt X with AgNO₃ indicates the presence of chloride ions, Cl^-. The fact that the precipitate dissolves in excess aqueous ammonia confirms the presence of Cl^- since silver chloride, AgCl, is soluble in excess aqueous ammonia. Therefore, the salt X contains chloride ions, Cl^-.

Answer Details

Fehling's solution is a chemical test used to detect the presence of reducing sugars such as glucose. It consists of two solutions: Fehling's A (a solution of copper(II) sulfate) and Fehling's B (a solution of sodium hydroxide and potassium sodium tartrate). When glucose is added to Fehling's solution and heated, the blue color of copper(II) ions in Fehling's A turns into reddish-brown precipitate of copper(I) oxide, Cu2O (not copper (ll) oxide). This happens because glucose acts as a reducing agent and donates electrons to the copper(II) ions, which get reduced to copper(I) ions. The copper(I) ions then combine with hydroxide ions from Fehling's B to form the insoluble copper(I) oxide precipitate. Therefore, the correct answer is copper(I) oxide (Cu2O).

Answer Details

The hydrogenation of C₆H₆ is a reaction in which hydrogen gas is reacted with benzene in the presence of a nickel catalyst. This reaction is an example of an addition reaction. In this reaction, the carbon-carbon double bond present in benzene is broken and replaced by single carbon-carbon bonds, and each carbon atom forms a single bond with a hydrogen atom. The product of the reaction is cyclohexane, which has the molecular formula C₆H₁₂. Therefore, the answer is option (C) C₆H₁₂.

Answer Details

The statement that is not true is "Na is smaller in size than Na+". In reality, the ionic radius of Na+ is smaller than the atomic radius of Na. When sodium loses one electron to form Na+, the number of electrons in the atom decreases from 11 to 10 while the number of protons in the nucleus remains the same at 11. This leads to an increase in the effective nuclear charge and a decrease in the size of the ion. Thus, Na+ is smaller than Na. The other statements are true. Na+ is smaller in size than Na, has fewer electrons than Na, and has a greater effective nuclear charge than Na.

Answer Details

The correct statement about rare gases is: - Their outermost shells are fully filled Explanation: Rare gases, also known as noble gases, are elements in Group 18 of the periodic table. They have a complete outermost electron shell, which makes them stable and unreactive. The filled outermost shell is the reason behind their low reactivity with other elements. Therefore, the statement that their outermost shells are fully filled is correct. The other options are incorrect as they do not apply to the properties of rare gases.

Answer Details

The given reaction describes the conversion of vegetable oil into some other product in the presence of a catalyst and high temperature. Among the options, the only product that can be obtained from vegetable oil using such a process is margarine. Margarine is made from vegetable oil by a process called hydrogenation, which involves the addition of hydrogen gas in the presence of a catalyst (such as nickel) and high temperature. This process converts the unsaturated fatty acids in vegetable oil to saturated ones, making the oil more solid and suitable for use as a spread. Therefore, the correct answer is margarine.

Answer Details

A basic salt is a salt that contains a metal cation and the conjugate base of a weak acid. The conjugate base of the weak acid behaves as a base and hence the salt shows basic properties. Among the given options, Zn(OH)CI is the only compound that can be a basic salt. It contains the metal ion zinc (Zn) and the anion of a weak acid, hydroxide (OH^-). The hydroxide ion can act as a base and accept a proton from water molecules, increasing the concentration of hydroxide ions in solution and making the solution basic. Therefore, the correct answer is Zn(OH)CI.

Answer Details

The property that is characteristic of the halogens is their ability to accept electrons readily. The halogens are a group of nonmetal elements found in Group 17 (VIIA) of the periodic table. They have seven valence electrons, which means they require only one more electron to achieve a noble gas configuration. Therefore, they have a high tendency to gain an electron and form negatively charged ions, such as Cl-, Br-, and I-. This ability to accept electrons readily is what makes halogens highly reactive and forms the basis for many of their chemical properties. Therefore, the correct answer is "Ability to accept electrons readily."

Answer Details

Copper will not liberate hydrogen from dilute HCl. This is because copper is below hydrogen in the reactivity series of metals. Metals below hydrogen in the reactivity series are unable to displace hydrogen from dilute acids. Copper, therefore, cannot react with dilute HCl to liberate hydrogen gas.

Answer Details

Heat is absorbed when a substance dissolves in water and the process is called endothermic. In this case, KNO3 and NH4CI are ionic compounds that dissolve in water to form ions, and this process is endothermic. On the other hand, concentrated H2SO4 is a molecular compound and does not dissociate into ions when mixed with water, so no heat is absorbed. Therefore, the compounds that will absorb heat when mixed with water are option I and III only, which is answer choice C.

Answer Details

Answer Details

Answer Details

Answer Details

(a) Equations

• (i) Beta decay of sodium-24: \[^{24}_{11}Na \rightarrow\ ^{24}_{12}Mg +\ ^{0}_{-1}e\]
• (ii) Sodium with cold water: \[2Na + 2H_2O \rightarrow 2NaOH + H_2\]

(b)(i) Two differences between reaction (a)(i) and (a)(ii)

• (a)(i) is a nuclear reaction taking place in the nucleus; (a)(ii) is a chemical reaction involving only the valence electrons.
• In (a)(i) a new element (Mg) is formed and an enormous amount of energy is released; in (a)(ii) no new element is formed and comparatively little energy is released, and its rate is affected by temperature/catalyst while (a)(i) is not.

(b)(ii) Two applications of radioactive decay: use of radioisotopes in medicine (radiotherapy for cancer, diagnostic tracers); and carbon-14 dating to estimate the age of fossils and rocks (also generation of electricity in nuclear reactors).

(c) Mg + 2HCl → MgCl₂ + H₂

• (i) Type of reaction: displacement (redox) reaction.
• (ii) Made faster by: warming (raising the temperature); using a more concentrated acid; or using powdered magnesium to increase surface area.
• (iii) Moles of Mg \(= \frac{6.0}{24} = 0.25\text{ mol}\); 1 mol Mg gives 1 mol H₂, so \[V = 0.25 \times 22.4 = 5.6\text{ dm}^3\]

(d) (i) An electrolyte is a substance which, when molten or in aqueous solution, conducts electricity and is decomposed by it. (ii) Electrolysis is the decomposition of an electrolyte by the passage of an electric current through it in the molten or aqueous state.

(e)

• (i) Metal extracted by electrolysis: aluminium (or sodium).
• (ii) Its ore: bauxite.
• (iii) Electrolysis of dilute NaCl with graphite electrodes: hydrogen is discharged at the cathode and oxygen at the anode.
• (iv) Aqueous NaCl conducts because its ions are free to move and carry charge, whereas in solid NaCl the ions are held rigidly in the lattice and cannot move.
• (v) Industrial use of NaCl: raw material for the manufacture of chlorine, sodium hydroxide and sodium trioxocarbonate(IV) (also food preservation).

Answer Details

(a)(i) Energy profile diagram for an endothermic reaction

In an endothermic reaction, the products have a higher energy than the reactants; hence, 0H is positive.

(a)(ii)

1. Addition of a catalyst: A catalyst increases the rate of reaction by providing an alternative reaction pathway with a lower activation energy. Thus, a greater proportion of collisions become successful.
2. Increase in temperature: Increasing the temperature increases the kinetic energy of reacting particles. The particles collide more frequently and more particles possess energy equal to or greater than the activation energy; therefore, the rate increases.

(b)(i)

\[\mathrm{CaCO_{3(s)} \xrightarrow{\Delta} CaO_{(s)} + CO_{2(g)}}\]

(b)(ii)

Molar mass of \(\mathrm{CaCO_3}\):

\[40 + 12 + (3 \times 16)=100\ \mathrm{g\ mol^{-1}}\]

From the equation, 1 mole of \(\mathrm{CaCO_3}\) produces 1 mole of \(\mathrm{CO_2}\).

\[100\ \mathrm{g\ of\ CaCO_3}\quad \longrightarrow\quad 22.4\ \mathrm{dm^3\ of\ CO_2\ at\ s.t.p.}\]

\[10\ \mathrm{g\ of\ CaCO_3}\quad \longrightarrow\quad \frac{10\times22.4}{100}=2.24\ \mathrm{dm^3}\]

Volume of \(\mathrm{CO_2}\) produced = \(2.24\ \mathrm{dm^3}\) at s.t.p.

(c)(i) One use of each form of carbon

1. Coal: used as a fuel.
2. Wood charcoal: used for absorbing poisonous gases or as an adsorbent.
3. Carbon(IV) oxide: used in fire extinguishers.

(c)(ii)

1. \[\mathrm{2NaNO_{3(s)} \xrightarrow{\Delta} 2NaNO_{2(s)} + O_{2(g)}}\]
2. \[\mathrm{MgCO_{3(s)} \xrightarrow{\Delta} MgO_{(s)} + CO_{2(g)}}\]

(d)

Use or property	Compound
(i) Used in the manufacture of cement	\(\mathrm{CaCO_3}\)
(ii) Used to detect carbon(IV) oxide	\(\mathrm{Ca(OH)_2}\), limewater
(iii) Liberates carbon(IV) oxide when dilute acid is added	\(\mathrm{CaCO_3}\)
(iv) Hygroscopic	\(\mathrm{CaO}\)
(v) Deliquescent	\(\mathrm{NaOH}\)

Answer Details

None

Answer Details

(a)(i) A homologous series is a family of organic compounds having the same general formula and similar chemical properties, in which successive members differ by a \(\mathrm{CH_2}\) unit.

(ii) Two homologous series present in petroleum are:

1. Alkanes
2. Cycloalkanes

(iii) Examples are:

• Alkane: methane, \(\mathrm{CH_4}\)
• Cycloalkane: cyclohexane, \(\mathrm{C_6H_{12}}\)

(iv) Two fractions obtained from the fractional distillation of petroleum are petrol (gasoline) and kerosene.

(v) There is a gradual change in physical properties because the fractions contain hydrocarbons with gradually increasing molecular masses and carbon-chain lengths. Consequently, the intermolecular forces and boiling points increase from one fraction to the next.

---

(b)(i) Ethanol with excess concentrated tetraoxosulphate(VI) acid at high temperature:

At about \(170^\circ\mathrm{C}\), ethanol is dehydrated to ethene in two steps:

\[\mathrm{C_2H_5OH + H_2SO_4 \rightarrow C_2H_5HSO_4 + H_2O}\]

\[\mathrm{C_2H_5HSO_4 \rightarrow C_2H_4 + H_2SO_4}\]

(ii) Excess ethanol with concentrated tetraoxosulphate(VI) acid at lower temperature:

At about \(140^\circ\mathrm{C}\), diethyl ether is formed in two steps:

\[\mathrm{C_2H_5OH + H_2SO_4 \rightarrow C_2H_5HSO_4 + H_2O}\]

\[\mathrm{C_2H_5HSO_4 + C_2H_5OH \rightarrow C_2H_5OC_2H_5 + H_2SO_4}\]

---

(c)(i)(I) Empirical formula

Element	C	H	O
Percentage composition	52.0	13.3	34.7
Divide by atomic mass	\(52.0/12=4.33\)	\(13.3/1=13.3\)	\(34.7/16=2.17\)
Divide by 2.17	2	6	1

Empirical formula = \(\boxed{\mathrm{C_2H_6O}}\).

(c)(i)(II) Molecular formula

Empirical formula mass = \((2\times12)+(6\times1)+16=46\).

\[n=\frac{\text{relative molecular mass}}{\text{empirical formula mass}}=\frac{46}{46}=1\]

Molecular formula = \((\mathrm{C_2H_6O})_1=\boxed{\mathrm{C_2H_6O}}\).

(c)(ii) Two possible structural formulae of \(\mathrm{C_2H_6O}\)

The first structure is ethanol. The second structure is methoxymethane, also called dimethyl ether.

Answer Details

(a) Definitions

• (i) Saturated solution: a solution that contains as much dissolved solute as it can hold at a given temperature in the presence of undissolved solute.
• (ii) Solubility: the maximum mass (or moles) of a solute that dissolves in a fixed volume (1 dm³) or 100 g of solvent to form a saturated solution at a given temperature.

(b) Solubility of salt Y

Mass of salt Y \(= 9.30 - 7.16 = 2.14\text{ g}\)

Mass of saturated solution \(= 17.85 - 7.16 = 10.69\text{ g}\)

Since density \(= 1.00\text{ g cm}^{-3}\), volume of solution \(= 10.69\text{ cm}^3 = 0.01069\text{ dm}^3\)

(i) \[\text{Solubility} = \frac{2.14}{0.01069} = 200\text{ g dm}^{-3}\]

(ii) \[\text{Solubility} = \frac{200}{100} = 2.0\text{ mol dm}^{-3}\]

(c) Bond broken on melting

• (i) NaCl(s): ionic (electrovalent) bond
• (ii) CO₂(s): weak van der Waals (intermolecular) forces
• (iii) SiO₂(s): giant covalent bonds
• (iv) Al(s): metallic bond

(d) Explanations

• (i) Down the group of alkali metals the atomic radius increases and the outer electron is more shielded from the nucleus, so ionisation energy falls and the single valence electron is lost more easily, increasing reactivity.
• (ii) Magnesium provides two delocalised electrons per atom (Na provides one) and has a smaller ion, so its metallic bonding is stronger, giving a higher melting point.
• (iii) Potassium has a larger atomic radius and lower ionisation energy than sodium, so it loses its outer electron more readily and is a better reducing agent.

(e) Isotopes

• (i) Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same atomic number (proton number) but different mass numbers (different numbers of neutrons).
• (ii) \[A_r = \frac{(6\times 2)+(7\times 25)}{2+25} = \frac{12+175}{27} = \frac{187}{27} = 6.93\]

Answer Details

(a) Definitions in terms of electron transfer

(i) Oxidation is the loss of electrons by an atom, ion or molecule.

(ii) Reduction is the gain of electrons by an atom, ion or molecule.

(b)(i) Oxidation state of phosphorus

I. POCl₃: taking O = \(-2\) and Cl = \(-1\), \[x + (-2) + 3(-1) = 0 \Rightarrow x = +5.\] Phosphorus is \(+5\).

II. PH₃: phosphorus is more electronegative than hydrogen, so each H is \(+1\), \[x + 3(+1) = 0 \Rightarrow x = -3.\] Phosphorus is \(-3\).

(b)(ii) Nature of the aqueous solutions (with reasons)

• NaNO₃ is neutral. It is the salt of a strong base (NaOH) and a strong acid (HNO₃), so neither ion hydrolyses.
• NH₄Cl is acidic. It is the salt of a strong acid (HCl) and a weak base (NH₃); the ammonium ion hydrolyses to release H⁺.
• Na₂CO₃ is basic. It is the salt of a strong base (NaOH) and a weak acid (H₂CO₃); the carbonate ion hydrolyses to release OH^-.

(c) The set-up (a flask containing NaCl to which concentrated H₂SO₄ is added and heated; the gas is passed through concentrated H₂SO₄ in the conical flask and then collected in an upright gas jar).

(i) Gas produced: hydrogen chloride gas, HCl. \[\text{NaCl} + \text{H}_2\text{SO}_4 \rightarrow \text{NaHSO}_4 + \text{HCl}\uparrow\]

(ii) Method of collection: upward displacement of air (downward delivery, into an upright jar).

(iii) Reason: hydrogen chloride is denser than air and is very soluble in water, so it cannot be collected over water and is collected by displacing air upward.

(iv) Function of the concentrated H₂SO₄ in the conical flask: it dries the gas by absorbing the water vapour (moisture) carried along with the hydrogen chloride.

(v)

I. Physical property: it is a colourless gas with a sharp, choking (pungent) smell and it fumes in moist air.

II. Chemical property: it is acidic; it turns damp blue litmus paper red and reacts with ammonia to form dense white fumes of ammonium chloride.

(vi) Chemical test: hold a glass rod moistened with concentrated ammonia solution near the gas; dense white fumes of NH₄Cl confirm hydrogen chloride. \[\text{HCl} + \text{NH}_3 \rightarrow \text{NH}_4\text{Cl}\]

(d) Value of x in Na₂SO₄.xH₂O

Mass of water driven off: \[4.3 - 2.12 = 2.18\ \text{g}\]

Molar masses: \(\text{Na}_2\text{SO}_4 = 2(23)+32+4(16) = 142\); \(\text{H}_2\text{O} = 18\).

Therefore \(x \approx 8\); the hydrated salt is approximately Na₂SO₄.8H₂O.