(a) Patriarchy is a social system in which men hold the dominant positions of power and authority, and in which the norms, values and institutions of society are structured to maintain male privilege and female subordination. [1] Within the family, patriarchy manifests as the control that men typically exercise over women and children in terms of decision-making, financial resources and the organisation of domestic life. [1]
(b) One example is the unequal division of housework. Research consistently shows that women perform more cooking, cleaning, laundry and other routine domestic tasks than men, even when both partners work full-time. [1] This 'dual burden' means that women effectively work two jobs while men enjoy comparatively more leisure time. [1]
A second example is unequal decision-making power. In many families, men have greater influence over major household decisions such as financial spending, where to live, major purchases and how children are disciplined, [1] while women's preferences may carry less weight, reflecting a broader power imbalance within the relationship. [1]
(c) Functionalists and feminists view the role of the family from fundamentally different starting points:
- Functionalists such as Parsons (1955) view the family positively, regarding the division of roles between men and women as natural, complementary and beneficial for all. [1] Parsons argued that men perform the instrumental role (breadwinning, connecting the family to the outside world) while women perform the expressive role (emotional care, nurturing, socialisation). He saw this arrangement as serving both family and societal needs. [1]
- Feminist sociologists reject this view, arguing that the domestic division of labour is not natural but socially constructed, and that it serves the interests of men at the expense of women. [1] Feminists see the family not as a harmonious institution but as a site of patriarchal oppression where women's labour is exploited and their opportunities constrained. [1]
- While functionalists emphasise consensus, stability and the positive functions of the family, feminists emphasise conflict, inequality and the ways in which family structures maintain male dominance. [1]
- Radical feminists go further, arguing that the family is the primary source of women's oppression and that genuine gender equality requires fundamental transformation of family structures, not merely minor adjustments to role distribution. [1]
(d) The source describes Delphy and Leonard's research finding that women perform the majority of housework and childcare even when they are also in paid employment. [1] From the source, the family is structured around unequal power relationships, with men benefiting materially from women's unpaid domestic work. [1] The source shows that these inequalities persist regardless of whether women also have jobs, suggesting that patriarchy within the family is deeply embedded rather than a simple response to economic dependency. [1]
Drawing on wider knowledge, Oakley (1974) was among the first sociologists to systematically challenge the functionalist view, demonstrating that housework is monotonous, isolating and overwhelmingly performed by women, yet is not recognised or valued as real work. [1] Duncombe and Marsden (1995) identified the 'triple shift': women perform paid work, domestic labour, and the emotional work of managing family relationships and maintaining household harmony. [1] Dobash and Dobash (1979) highlighted domestic violence as an extreme expression of patriarchal power within the family, demonstrating that the family can be a dangerous place for women and children. [1] Even in households where men claim to share housework equally, detailed time-use studies consistently reveal that women still do more, particularly the routine, repetitive, less rewarding tasks. [1] The transmission of gender roles through socialisation within the family itself helps to reproduce patriarchal attitudes and expectations in each new generation. [1]
(e) This question asks whether the role of women within the family has genuinely changed in modern industrial societies, or whether the appearance of change conceals continuing inequality.
Arguments that women's role has changed significantly:
- Workforce participation: Women's participation in paid employment has increased dramatically. In the UK, around 72 per cent of women are now in paid work, transforming family economics from the single-earner model.
- Feminist impact: The feminist movement challenged traditional expectations and expanded educational and career opportunities for women, changing aspirations and identities within families.
- Men doing more: Sullivan (2000) found evidence of a gradual increase in men's share of domestic tasks, particularly among younger, better-educated couples.
- Legal reform: The Equal Pay Act, Sex Discrimination Act and the introduction of shared parental leave have addressed formal barriers to equality and signalled changing institutional expectations.
- Reproductive control: Access to reliable contraception has given women control over the timing and number of their pregnancies, enabling career planning and smaller families.
Arguments that women's role has changed less than it appears:
- Persistent housework gap: Oakley (1974) exposed the 'myth of the symmetrical family', and more recent research confirms that women still perform significantly more housework and childcare than men.
- Emotional labour: Duncombe and Marsden (1995) demonstrated that even where housework appears to be shared, women continue to carry the additional, invisible burden of emotional labour.
- Gender pay gap: The persistent difference in earnings means that women's income within families is often lower than men's, which can translate into less power in household decision-making.
- Domestic violence: Women remain disproportionately affected by domestic violence and abuse, indicating that patriarchal power structures within the family have not been dismantled.
- Parenthood as a trigger: When children arrive, many families revert to more traditional gender roles, with women reducing their working hours and assuming primary childcare responsibility, regardless of their pre-parenthood arrangements.
Conclusion: The role of women within the family has undoubtedly changed in modern industrial societies, with greater workforce participation, more educational opportunities and evolving cultural expectations. However, the pace of change has been uneven and incomplete. While formal barriers have been largely removed, informal inequalities in housework, emotional labour, pay and domestic power dynamics persist. The extent of change depends significantly on social class, ethnicity, culture and individual relationships. [15]
