The war caused political upheaval across Europe between 1917 and 1919. (a) Describe the political changes that occurred in Russia in 1917. [4] (b) Why did r...

Part (a) - Political changes in Russia in 1917 [4 marks]

Two revolutions transformed Russia in 1917. The February Revolution (March in the Western calendar) overthrew Tsar Nicholas II, ending the Romanov dynasty that had ruled Russia for over 300 years. A Provisional Government was established, initially led by Prince Lvov and later by Alexander Kerensky. This government struggled to maintain authority alongside the rival Petrograd Soviet of workers' and soldiers' deputies, creating a system of 'dual power.'

The October Revolution (November in the Western calendar) saw the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, seize power in a coup against the Provisional Government. The Bolsheviks established the world's first communist state, withdrawing Russia from the First World War by signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany in March 1918, surrendering vast territories in exchange for peace.

A strong answer identifies both revolutions, names key figures (Nicholas II, Kerensky, Lenin), and notes the end of the Romanov dynasty and the establishment of communist rule.

Part (b) - Why revolution spread to Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1918 [6 marks]

Revolution spread to these empires because of several interconnected pressures created by the war:

• Military defeat and war-weariness: By 1918, both empires faced military collapse. The strain of four years of total war had exhausted armies and civilian populations alike.
• The German naval mutiny at Kiel (October 1918): Sailors refused orders to sail out for a final battle against the Royal Navy, sparking a wider revolution across German cities.
• Food shortages and economic hardship: The Allied naval blockade caused severe food shortages in Germany. Austria-Hungary faced similar deprivation, and civilian suffering fuelled demands for change.
• The example of Russia: The Russian Revolution of 1917 demonstrated that ordinary people could overthrow a powerful monarchy, inspiring revolutionary movements elsewhere.
• Ethnic nationalism in Austria-Hungary: The multi-ethnic Austro-Hungarian Empire disintegrated as Czechs, Poles, Hungarians and South Slavs declared independence along national lines.
• Abdication of monarchs: Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany abdicated on 9 November 1918 and a republic was proclaimed. Emperor Karl I of Austria also abdicated in November 1918.

For full marks, explain the causes of revolution (not just list events), linking war-weariness, military defeat, economic suffering and the Russian example.

Part (c) - To what extent did the First World War destroy the old political order in Europe? [10 marks]

This is an evaluative question requiring a balanced argument with a clear judgement.

Evidence that the war destroyed the old order:

• Four great empires collapsed: Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman. All were replaced by republics or new nation states.
• The map of Europe was redrawn at the Paris Peace Conference (1919-20). New countries emerged, including Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Finland and the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania).
• Monarchical government, dominant before 1914, gave way to democratic republics across much of the continent.
• The Russian Revolution established communism as a major political force, creating an ideological division between capitalism and communism that shaped the twentieth century.

Evidence that the destruction was incomplete or unstable:

• The post-war democratic order proved fragile. Within two decades, authoritarian regimes had taken power in Italy (Mussolini, 1922), Germany (Hitler, 1933), Spain (Franco, 1939), Poland, Hungary and several other states.
• The peace settlements, particularly the Treaty of Versailles, created resentments - especially in Germany - that contributed to the rise of Nazism and ultimately the Second World War.
• Some monarchies survived, including Britain, Belgium, the Netherlands and Scandinavia.

A strong conclusion recognises that the war destroyed the old imperial order but failed to create a stable new one. The democratic replacements were vulnerable to economic crisis and extremist movements, leaving Europe exposed to an even greater catastrophe in 1939.