WAEC SSCE - Government - 2016 (Essay)

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Factors that can limit the independence of the judiciary

The independence of the judiciary means the ability of judges to decide cases impartially, free from control or pressure by any other person or arm of government. Several factors can undermine this independence.

1. Method of appointment of judges: Where judges are appointed solely by the executive or on the basis of political loyalty rather than merit, they may feel indebted to those who appointed them and may deliver judgments that favour the appointing authority.
2. Executive control over remuneration and conditions of service: If the salaries, allowances and welfare of judges are determined and paid at the discretion of the executive rather than charged to a consolidated fund, judges can be intimidated through the threat of poor pay or withheld benefits.
3. Insecurity of tenure: Where judges can be removed, suspended or transferred easily and without due process by the executive or legislature, they become fearful and reluctant to give judgments against the government.
4. Corruption and bribery: When judges accept bribes or gratification from litigants, their impartiality is compromised and justice is sold to the highest bidder rather than decided on the merits of the case.
5. Executive interference and disobedience of court orders: Direct pressure on judges, threats, and the refusal of the executive to obey or enforce court judgments weaken the authority and independence of the courts.
6. Political and public opinion pressure: Fear of criticism from powerful politicians, the press or ethnic and religious groups may push judges to decide cases in a way that pleases such interests rather than according to law.

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In a presidential system of government, a proposed law (a bill) must pass through several stages before it becomes law. The main processes are:

1. First reading: the bill is formally introduced in the legislature (for example, in the House of Representatives or Senate). Only the title is read; there is no debate at this stage.
2. Second reading: the general principles and merits of the bill are debated by the members. If the bill is accepted in principle, it is passed on for detailed examination.
3. Committee stage: the bill is referred to a relevant committee, which examines it clause by clause, may hold public hearings, and makes amendments before reporting back to the house.
4. Report stage and third reading: the committee reports its findings and amendments to the whole house; the amended bill is considered, debated finally and voted upon. If passed, it goes to the other chamber (in a bicameral legislature) to go through the same stages, and any differences are harmonised by a conference committee.
5. Presidential assent: once passed by the legislature, the bill is sent to the President, who signs it into law. If the President withholds assent (vetoes it), the legislature may still pass it into law by overriding the veto with the required (usually two-thirds) majority of both houses.

After assent, the new law is published in the official gazette and becomes operative.

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Roles of minority (opposition) parties in a multiparty democracy

Minority parties are political parties that do not control the government but participate in the democratic process. They perform vital roles that keep democracy healthy.

1. Constructive criticism of government: They scrutinise government policies and programmes, exposing weaknesses and offering alternative ideas, thereby checking abuse of power.
2. Acting as a government-in-waiting: They present themselves as a credible alternative, ready to take over power through elections should the ruling party fail or lose an election.
3. Protection of citizens' rights: They speak out against oppressive or unjust actions of the ruling party and defend the fundamental rights and interests of the people.
4. Political education and mobilisation: Through rallies, debates and manifestos, they enlighten citizens on political issues and encourage participation in the political process.
5. Ensuring accountability and transparency: By demanding explanations and questioning government spending and decisions, they compel the ruling party to govern responsibly.
6. Promoting national unity and stability: Where minority parties channel grievances through lawful, constitutional means, they help to prevent violence and preserve orderly government.

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Features of Igbo traditional societies

The pre-colonial Igbo of south-eastern Nigeria operated a decentralised, republican political system without a central king.

1. Absence of a centralised authority (acephalous/segmentary system): There was no paramount king ruling over all the Igbo; each village or town was largely autonomous and self-governing.
2. Direct/participatory democracy: Decisions were taken at village assemblies where adult males gathered to discuss and reach consensus on matters affecting the community.
3. Rule by council of elders (Amala/Oha) and titled men: Elders, family heads and holders of titles such as the Ozo exercised authority and settled disputes.
4. Age-grade system: Age grades performed important administrative, defensive and developmental functions such as maintaining order, executing public works and defending the community.
5. Kinship and lineage organisation: Society was built around families and lineages (Umunna), and the extended family formed the basic political and social unit.
6. Role of religion and secret societies: Oracles, priests and secret societies (such as the Ekpe and masquerade cults) helped to enforce laws, morality and social control.

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(a) Three former French colonies in West Africa

1. Senegal
2. Ivory Coast (Cote d'Ivoire)
3. Guinea

(Others include Mali, Niger, Dahomey/Benin, Upper Volta/Burkina Faso, Togo and Mauritania.)

(b) Qualifications for the assimilation of an indigenous African into French citizenship

Under the French policy of assimilation, an African could become a French citizen if he satisfied the following conditions.

1. Ability to speak and write the French language fluently.
2. Adoption of the French way of life and culture, abandoning indigenous customs, and profession of Christianity in place of traditional religion.
3. Rendering of service to France, for example serving in the French army or the colonial administration for a stipulated number of years.
4. Attainment of a certain level of Western education and being of good character with no criminal record.
5. A regular means of livelihood (gainful employment) and being of a prescribed minimum age (usually adulthood).

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Roles of the mass media in nation building

The mass media (newspapers, radio, television, internet) are channels through which information reaches large numbers of people. They contribute to nation building in the following ways.

1. Dissemination of information: The media inform citizens about government policies, programmes, events and developments, keeping the nation aware of what is happening.
2. Political education and enlightenment: They educate citizens on their rights, duties and civic responsibilities, and explain the workings of government, thereby producing an informed citizenry.
3. Promotion of national unity and integration: By highlighting shared values and covering all sections of the country, the media help to bind different ethnic and religious groups into one nation.
4. Watchdog role and check on government: The media expose corruption, abuse of office and maladministration, thereby holding leaders accountable and promoting good governance.
5. Mobilisation for development: They rouse citizens to participate in development projects, campaigns (such as health, agriculture and education programmes) and nation-building efforts.
6. Shaping and reflecting public opinion: The media provide a platform through which citizens express their views and government gauges the feelings of the people.

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Positive effects of colonialism on West Africa

1. Introduction of Western education: Schools and colleges were established, producing literate Africans who later became teachers, administrators and nationalist leaders.
2. Development of infrastructure: Roads, railways, seaports, bridges and telecommunication facilities were built, opening up the interior and easing movement and trade.
3. Introduction of a modern money economy: Currency, banking and wage employment replaced trade by barter, promoting commerce and a cash economy.
4. Establishment of modern political and administrative institutions: Structures such as the civil service, courts, legislative councils and organised government were introduced and later inherited at independence.
5. Provision of modern health and social services: Hospitals, dispensaries and improved medicine helped to control diseases and raise the standard of living.
6. Promotion of unity and larger political units: Different ethnic groups were brought together under single administrations, laying the foundation for modern nation-states.

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(a) What is fascism?

Fascism is a system of government and a political ideology that is authoritarian, totalitarian and intensely nationalistic. It places the state above the individual, glorifies the nation and a single all-powerful leader, and rejects democracy, liberalism and communism. It was associated with Benito Mussolini in Italy and Adolf Hitler (in its Nazi form) in Germany between the two World Wars. Under fascism, the state controls all aspects of national life and demands total loyalty and obedience from the people.

(b) Four features of fascism

1. Totalitarian one-party rule: only one political party is allowed, and it controls the whole apparatus of the state; opposition parties are banned.
2. Supremacy of the state over the individual: the interest of the state is supreme and the individual exists to serve the state, so personal rights and freedoms are suppressed.
3. Extreme nationalism and militarism: fascism glorifies the nation and race, promotes aggressive nationalism, and relies heavily on the military and the readiness for war.
4. Dictatorship of an all-powerful leader: power is concentrated in the hands of a single supreme leader (such as Mussolini or Hitler) whose authority is absolute and unquestioned.

Other features include the use of force, terror and secret police to crush opposition, strict censorship and control of information, and the rejection of democracy and equality.

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(a) Aims and objectives of a political party such as the NNP

Like every political party, the NNP was formed principally to win and control governmental power. Its aims and objectives included the following.

1. To capture political power: to win elections and form the government so as to implement its programmes.
2. To promote national unity and integration: to bring together people of different backgrounds under a common political platform and ideology.
3. To pursue the welfare and development of the people: to provide social amenities, education, employment and improved living standards through its policies.

(b) Sources of finance of the party

1. Membership dues, registration fees and donations from party members and supporters.
2. Contributions and levies from party members holding elective or appointive offices, and gifts from wealthy individuals, sympathisers and organisations.

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(a) Meaning of National Interest

National interest refers to the sum total of the fundamental goals, values, aspirations and objectives that a country seeks to protect and promote in its dealings with other states. It covers the preservation of the nation's security, sovereignty, territorial integrity, economic well-being and prestige. National interest guides the making and conduct of a country's foreign policy.

(b) Objectives of Nigeria's foreign policy

1. Promotion of the national interest of Nigeria, including the protection of her sovereignty, territorial integrity and the welfare of her citizens.
2. Promotion of African unity and total liberation of Africa from colonialism and racism (Africa as the centrepiece of Nigeria's foreign policy).
3. Promotion of international peace, security and cooperation through active membership of bodies such as the United Nations and the African Union.
4. Fostering good neighbourliness and friendly relations with other states, based on the principles of non-interference in the internal affairs of others and peaceful settlement of disputes.