WAEC SSCE - Government - 2013 (Essay)

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(a) Meaning of Indirect Rule

Indirect Rule was the system of colonial administration adopted by the British, especially by Lord Lugard in Nigeria, under which the colony was governed through the existing traditional rulers and native institutions rather than directly by British officials. The traditional rulers (emirs, obas and chiefs) retained their thrones and continued to rule their people, but they did so under the supervision, guidance and control of British Residents and District Officers. Native Authorities, Native Courts and Native Treasuries were established to carry out local administration, collect taxes and maintain order in accordance with colonial policy.

(b) Reasons the policy was criticised

1. It preserved and strengthened autocratic, undemocratic traditional rulers instead of developing modern democratic institutions.
2. It excluded the educated elite from the administration, breeding resentment among the emerging nationalists.
3. It froze society by making chiefs agents of colonial rule, so they often became unpopular tax collectors and lost the confidence of their people.
4. It worked poorly in areas without strong centralised chieftaincies (the East and parts of the West), where warrant chiefs had to be imposed artificially.
5. It slowed political, social and educational development because Britain governed cheaply through others rather than investing in the people.
6. It divided the country by treating each area differently and hindered the growth of a common national outlook.

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The Macpherson Constitution of 1951, though more liberal than its predecessors, collapsed within a few years. The following are six reasons for its breakdown:

1. Excessive regionalism: The constitution strengthened the three regions so greatly that regional and ethnic loyalty grew stronger than national unity, weakening the central government.
2. The self-government crisis of 1953: Anthony Enahoro's motion for self-government in 1956 was opposed by Northern members, who tabled a delaying amendment; the resulting quarrel between the leaders split the House.
3. The Kano riots of 1953: The bitter exchanges over the self-government motion provoked violent riots in Kano between Northerners and Southerners, deepening mutual distrust.
4. The Eastern Region crisis: The dispute within the NCNC between Nnamdi Azikiwe and Professor Eyo Ita over control of the Eastern regional government created a deadlock that the rigid constitution could not resolve.
5. Weak central legislature and executive: Ministers were appointed without real portfolios or executive authority, so the constitution failed to satisfy nationalist demands for genuine responsible government.
6. Absence of consensus among nationalist leaders: The leaders of the three regions could not agree on the pace and form of constitutional advance, making cooperation at the centre impossible.

These pressures forced the summoning of the 1953 London Constitutional Conference, which produced the Lyttleton (federal) Constitution of 1954 in its place.

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(a) Government as an art of governing

Government as an art of governing refers to the actual practice or process of administering the affairs of the state, that is, the way in which power is acquired and used to make and enforce decisions, maintain order and provide for the needs of the people. In this sense government means the exercise of authority and the machinery of ruling a people.

(b) Duties of government

1. Maintenance of law and order. Government protects life and property and keeps internal peace through the police and the courts.
2. Defence of the state. It safeguards the territory and sovereignty of the state against external attack.
3. Provision of social amenities and infrastructure. It supplies education, health, water, roads and other services.
4. Protection of citizens' rights. It guarantees and defends the fundamental rights and freedoms of the people.
5. Regulation of the economy. It manages and develops the economy through appropriate policies.

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Factors that led to the collapse of the West African Students' Union (WASU) before the end of the Second World War

1. Financial difficulties. WASU depended largely on subscriptions and donations; inadequate and irregular funding crippled its activities.
2. Disruption by the Second World War. The war interrupted travel, communication and the flow of students from West Africa to Britain, weakening the Union's base.
3. Internal disunity and leadership wrangling. Rivalry, personality clashes and disagreements among members and leaders sapped the organisation's strength.
4. Distance from home. Being based in London, far from West Africa, WASU became detached from the masses at home and could not sustain a strong local following.
5. Colonial government hostility. The colonial authorities regarded WASU as subversive and worked to discourage and undermine it.
6. Transient membership. As a students' body its members graduated and left, so it constantly lost experienced leaders and lacked continuity.
7. Emergence of home-based parties. The rise of nationalist parties within West Africa drew attention and support away from the London-based Union.

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Organisational structure of a political party

A political party is usually organised as a hierarchy of committees stretching from the national level down to the grassroots. The typical structure is as follows:

1. National level. The National Convention is the supreme organ; it makes party policy, amends the party constitution and elects national officers. Between conventions the National Executive Committee, headed by the National Chairman and National Secretary, runs the party's affairs.
2. State or Regional level. The State Executive Committee, headed by a State Chairman and Secretary, coordinates party activities within the state and links it to the national headquarters.
3. Local government or constituency level. Local branch committees organise the party within each local government area or constituency.
4. Ward level. Ward committees mobilise members and voters within the wards.
5. Grassroots or polling-unit level. The smallest unit, made up of the ordinary card-carrying members, is where the party recruits members and canvasses votes.

The party also maintains organs such as the Board of Trustees, the caucus and various standing committees (finance, disciplinary, publicity), together with auxiliary youth and women's wings.

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(a) Constitution

A constitution is the body of fundamental rules, principles and conventions, whether written or unwritten, according to which a state is governed. It establishes the organs of government, defines and distributes their powers, and states the rights and duties of citizens and the relationship between the government and the governed.

(b) Why some countries use written constitutions

1. Clarity and certainty. The rules of government are set out in one document and can be easily consulted, reducing disputes over what the law is.
2. Protection of rights. Fundamental human rights are clearly stated and entrenched against easy violation.
3. Suitability for federations. A written constitution clearly divides powers between the central and component governments, essential in a federal state.
4. Stability and permanence. A rigid written document is not easily changed at the whim of those in power.
5. Guide to the organs of government. It clearly defines and limits the powers of the legislature, executive and judiciary, preventing abuse.
6. Reference for new states. Newly independent or reconstituted states adopt a written constitution to establish an agreed framework of government.
7. Basis for judicial review. It provides a clear standard against which the courts can test the validity of laws and official acts.

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(a) Four past Secretaries-General of the United Nations Organisation

1. Trygve Lie (Norway)
2. Dag Hammarskjold (Sweden)
3. U Thant (Burma/Myanmar)
4. Kurt Waldheim (Austria)
5. Javier Perez de Cuellar (Peru)
6. Boutros Boutros-Ghali (Egypt)
7. Kofi Annan (Ghana)
8. Ban Ki-moon (South Korea)

(Any four of the above are correct.)

(b) Five functions of the Secretary-General of the UNO

1. He is the chief administrative officer of the United Nations and heads the Secretariat.
2. He may bring to the attention of the Security Council any matter that in his opinion threatens international peace and security (Article 99).
3. He prepares and submits an annual report on the work of the Organisation to the General Assembly.
4. He carries out functions and tasks entrusted to him by the General Assembly, the Security Council and other organs.
5. He performs mediation and good offices, using his influence to settle disputes and reconcile conflicting parties.
6. He appoints, directs and coordinates the staff of the Secretariat.
7. He convenes and services meetings of the various organs of the UN.

(Any five of the above are acceptable.)

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(a) Concurrent functions in a federation

Concurrent functions (the concurrent list) are the subjects and functions on which both the central (federal) government and the component (regional or state) governments are empowered to make laws. Examples include education, health, agriculture and roads. Where a state law conflicts with a federal law on a concurrent matter, the federal law prevails and the state law is void to the extent of the inconsistency.

(b) Features of a confederal system of government

1. Weak central authority. The central government is weak and depends on the component states for its powers.
2. Sovereignty resides in the units. The component states retain their sovereignty and independence.
3. Right of secession. Member states are free to withdraw from the union whenever they wish.
4. The centre depends on the units for finance. The central body has no direct power of taxation over citizens and relies on contributions from the states.
5. Central decisions may be ignored. The units can refuse to carry out or can nullify the decisions of the central government.
6. Union by agreement. The confederation is formed by treaty or agreement among independent states, mainly for defence and economic purposes.

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(a) De-concentration of power

De-concentration is a form of administrative decentralisation in which the central government transfers some of its functions and personnel to its own field or branch offices in the regions or localities, while retaining full authority and control over them. The local officials merely carry out central directives; they take no independent decisions and are answerable to the centre. It is therefore delegation within a single administrative hierarchy, not a genuine devolution of power.

(b) Importance of decentralisation

1. Brings government closer to the people. Local units can quickly attend to the needs and problems of their communities.
2. Reduces the burden on central government. Local matters are handled locally, freeing the centre to concentrate on national issues.
3. Encourages popular participation. Citizens take part in the administration of their own areas, deepening democracy.
4. Speeds up administration. Decisions are taken on the spot without waiting for approval from a distant capital.
5. Provides political education and leadership training. Local administration trains citizens for higher political responsibility.
6. Promotes even development. Local units can develop their areas according to local priorities and resources.

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Functions of the Emir in the Hausa/Fulani traditional political system

1. Head of the administration. The Emir was the political and administrative head of the emirate, presiding over the government and his council of officials.
2. Chief law-maker and enforcer. He made laws within the framework of Islamic law and ensured their enforcement to maintain peace and order.
3. Chief judge. He was the highest judicial authority, hearing appeals and important cases, assisted by the Alkali who administered Sharia law.
4. Religious head. As leader of the Muslim community he upheld and defended Islam and the Sharia within his emirate.
5. Collection of taxes. He supervised the assessment and collection of taxes such as the jangali (cattle tax) and zakkat through his officials.
6. Defence and command of forces. He was responsible for the defence of the emirate and could raise forces in time of war.
7. Appointment of officials. He appointed and could dismiss the district and village heads and other office holders who assisted him.
8. Custodian of custom and welfare. He upheld the customs and traditions of the people and provided for their general welfare.

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Nigeria's relations with her neighbouring states (Republic of Benin, Niger, Chad and Cameroon) have been shaped by several factors:

1. Geographical contiguity and shared borders: The long, porous land borders make cooperation on trade, migration and security unavoidable.
2. Common colonial and cultural ties: Ethnic groups such as the Hausa, Kanuri and Yoruba straddle the borders, creating kinship and cultural bonds that promote friendly relations.
3. Economic interdependence: Cross-border trade, Nigeria's large market, and shared use of resources like the Chad Basin and River Niger bind the states together.
4. Good-neighbourliness and non-interference: Nigeria's foreign policy principle of respecting the sovereignty and territorial integrity of neighbours guides its conduct.
5. Regional integration through ECOWAS: Membership of the Economic Community of West African States promotes free movement, economic cooperation and collective decision-making.
6. Security and defence concerns: Cross-border crimes, insurgency (for example Boko Haram) and smuggling have compelled joint military action such as the Multinational Joint Task Force.
7. Boundary disputes: Disagreements such as the Bakassi Peninsula dispute with Cameroon, resolved by the International Court of Justice, have affected relations.
8. Big-brother/leadership role: Nigeria's size, population and resources give it a leadership position, and it often extends aid and assistance to smaller neighbours.

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Importance of the Brazzaville Conference of 1944 in the constitutional development of French West Africa

The Brazzaville Conference, convened by General de Gaulle's Free French government in 1944, marked a turning point in France's relationship with her African colonies. Its importance includes:

1. Reform of colonial policy. It signalled France's intention to reform, though not immediately abandon, colonial rule and to grant Africans a greater role in their own affairs.
2. Representation in the French Parliament. It recommended that the African colonies send elected representatives to the French Constituent Assembly and Parliament in Paris, drawing Africans into central law-making.
3. Abolition of forced labour and the indigenat. It led to the ending of forced labour and the repressive indigenat (native code) that had subjected Africans to arbitrary punishment.
4. Extension of citizenship rights. It paved the way for extending French citizenship and civil rights to Africans, culminating in the 1946 constitution and the French Union.
5. Creation of local assemblies. It encouraged the establishment of territorial and representative assemblies in the colonies, beginning local political participation.
6. Association rather than independence. Although it ruled out immediate self-government, it committed France to a closer partnership within a French community, which later evolved toward autonomy.
7. Stimulus to political awakening. The reforms encouraged the formation of political parties and trade unions and quickened nationalist consciousness in French West Africa.