WAEC SSCE - Government - 1994 (Essay)

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Support for African liberation movements has been a cornerstone of Nigeria's foreign policy since independence, flowing from the Afrocentric principle that Africa is the centrepiece of Nigeria's external relations. Nigeria gave this support in the following ways.

1. Financial and material assistance: Nigeria donated large sums of money and materials to liberation movements such as the ANC and PAC of South Africa, SWAPO of Namibia, FRELIMO of Mozambique, MPLA of Angola and ZANU/ZAPU of Zimbabwe, often channelled through the OAU Liberation Committee.
2. Establishment of relief and solidarity funds: Nigeria created special funds, including the Southern Africa Relief Fund and the National Committee Against Apartheid, and the government encouraged citizens and workers to contribute part of their salaries to the anti-apartheid struggle.
3. Diplomatic and moral support: Nigeria consistently used its voice at the United Nations, the OAU, the Commonwealth and the Non-Aligned Movement to condemn colonialism and apartheid and to press for the isolation of racist regimes.
4. Imposition of economic sanctions: Nigeria applied economic pressure, boycotted South African goods, and in 1979 nationalised the assets of British Petroleum in Nigeria to compel Britain to change its policy toward Rhodesia and South Africa.
5. Provision of training and scholarships: Nigeria trained freedom fighters and offered educational scholarships and asylum to nationalists and refugees from colonial and apartheid territories.
6. Recognition of liberation movements: Nigeria recognised liberation movements as legitimate representatives of their peoples and helped secure their recognition by international bodies.
7. Support for a frontline role and use of the sports boycott: Nigeria backed the frontline states and led boycotts of international sporting and cultural events (for example the 1976 Montreal Olympics and the 1978 Commonwealth Games) that involved apartheid South Africa.
8. Hosting of conferences and mobilisation of world opinion: Nigeria hosted anti-apartheid conferences and mobilised African and international opinion against colonialism and racial discrimination.

Through these efforts Nigeria earned a reputation as a frontline advocate of African liberation despite being geographically distant from Southern Africa.

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The Lyttleton Constitution of 1954 is widely regarded as the constitution that firmly established a federal system in Nigeria. It reversed the semi-unitary tendencies of the earlier Macpherson Constitution and introduced arrangements that reflected the essential features of true federalism.

1. Formal declaration of a federation: The 1954 Constitution expressly declared Nigeria a federation made up of three regions (Northern, Western and Eastern) together with the Federal Territory of Lagos, replacing the loose "unitary-federal" character of earlier arrangements.
2. Division of powers between two levels of government: It created a clear distribution of legislative powers through an Exclusive List (matters reserved for the Central Government such as defence, external affairs, currency and customs) and a Concurrent List (matters on which both the Central and Regional Governments could legislate). Residual matters were left to the regions. This constitutional sharing of powers is the hallmark of federalism.
3. Regional autonomy: Each region was given its own government, legislature and public service, and could act independently within its assigned sphere without interference from the Centre. The regions were no longer mere administrative appendages of the Centre.
4. Separate regional executives: Each region had its own Executive Council headed by a Premier, giving the regions genuine self-governing capacity.
5. Regionalisation of the public and judicial services: The civil service, the judiciary (regional High Courts) and other services were regionalised, so that each region controlled its own administrative machinery.
6. Removal of Lagos from the Western Region: Lagos was made a separate Federal Territory administered by the Central Government, underscoring the distinct status of the federal capital.
7. Provision for self-government at regional pace: Regions were allowed to attain internal self-government at their own time, which the East and West did in 1957 and the North in 1959, reflecting the autonomy of the component units.
8. Revenue allocation on the principle of derivation: Fiscal arrangements were reorganised so that regions retained a share of revenue derived from their areas, giving them financial independence to run their own affairs.

Through these features, the 1954 Constitution laid the foundation of Nigerian federalism by combining a strong Central Government with autonomous regional governments, each supreme within its constitutional sphere.

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Meaning of Fundamental Human Rights

Fundamental Human Rights are the basic rights, freedoms and privileges to which every human being is entitled by virtue of being a person. They are inalienable, natural rights which the state recognises and guarantees to all citizens, and which cannot lawfully be taken away except by due process of law. Examples include the right to life, personal liberty, freedom of expression, freedom of movement, freedom of association, freedom of thought, conscience and religion, right to fair hearing, right to private and family life, and freedom from discrimination.

Why it is entrenched in a constitution

1. Protection from abuse of power: Entrenchment shields citizens' rights against arbitrary interference by the government and its officials.
2. Difficulty of amendment: Being placed in the constitution with a rigid amendment procedure makes the rights secure and not easily tampered with by an ordinary law.
3. Enforceability in court: Entrenchment makes the rights justiciable, so that any citizen whose rights are violated can seek redress in the courts.
4. Promotion of the rule of law and democracy: It ensures equality before the law and limits governmental power, sustaining democratic governance.
5. Preservation of human dignity and freedom: It guarantees the liberty, dignity and welfare of the individual within the state.
6. Check on tyranny: It prevents the emergence of dictatorship by placing clear limits on what government may do to the citizen.

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The efficiency of the judiciary in safeguarding the rights of citizens can be guaranteed through the following measures:

1. Independence of the judiciary: Judges should be free from control or interference by the executive and legislature so that they can decide cases impartially.
2. Security of tenure: Judges should hold office until retirement and should not be arbitrarily removed, dismissed or have their salaries reduced, so that they can act without fear or favour.
3. Adequate funding: The judiciary should be given financial autonomy and sufficient resources to function effectively and resist inducement.
4. Appointment of qualified and competent judges: Only persons of proven learning, experience and integrity should be appointed to the bench.
5. Fair and adequate remuneration: Judges should be well paid to reduce the temptation of corruption and bribery.
6. Separation of powers: Clear division of powers among the three arms of government prevents the abuse of judicial functions.
7. Free access to the courts: The rules and cost of litigation should be simplified and legal aid provided so that even the poor can seek justice.
8. Speedy dispensation of justice: Delay should be reduced by providing enough courts, judges and modern facilities so that justice is not denied.
9. Public confidence and the rule of law: The government and citizens must respect and enforce court judgements.

(Any relevant points are acceptable.)

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Meaning of a party manifesto

A party manifesto is a written statement of the aims, programmes, policies and promises of a political party, published and presented to the electorate, usually before an election, to explain what the party intends to do if it is voted into power. It is the official document that sets out the party's plans on matters such as the economy, education, health, security and infrastructure.

Why it is necessary

1. It informs the electorate: It tells the voters the intentions, policies and programmes of the party so that they can make an informed choice.
2. Basis for comparison: It enables voters to compare the programmes of different parties before deciding whom to support.
3. Guide to governance: It serves as a plan of action and reference point for the party's government once it assumes office.
4. Instrument of accountability: It allows the electorate to measure the performance of the government against its promises and to reward or punish it at the next election.
5. Political education: It enlightens citizens on national issues and the workings of government.
6. Mobilisation of support: It helps the party to canvass for votes and win the confidence of the people during campaigns.

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(a) Meaning of political socialization

Political socialization is the process by which an individual acquires political knowledge, values, beliefs, attitudes and orientations towards the political system of his society. It is the lifelong learning process through which people come to understand their political roles, develop political opinions, and form loyalties that shape their political behaviour.

(b) Major agents of political socialization

1. The family: As the first agent, the family transmits early political attitudes, values and party loyalties to the child.
2. The school: Through civic education, history and interaction, the school teaches citizens about government, rights, duties and national values.
3. Peer groups: Friends and associates influence one another's political opinions, attitudes and participation.
4. The mass media: Newspapers, radio, television and the internet inform, educate and shape public opinion on political issues.
5. Religious institutions: Churches and mosques teach moral and civic values that affect political outlook and conduct.
6. Political parties and pressure groups: They mobilise, educate and orient citizens on political ideologies, issues and participation.
7. The government/state: Through its institutions, symbols, ceremonies and policies, the state instils loyalty and a sense of national identity.

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General Ibrahim Babangida came to power on 27 August 1985 after overthrowing the Buhari regime, and styled himself President rather than Head of State. Up to 1990 his administration was organised through the following structure of military rule.

1. The President and Commander-in-Chief: Babangida stood at the apex as military President and Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, combining the roles of head of state, head of government and supreme commander. He concentrated wide personal powers in his office.
2. The Armed Forces Ruling Council (AFRC): This was the highest policy-making and law-making organ, replacing the former Supreme Military Council. Composed of senior military officers, it made decrees, formulated national policy and took major decisions of state. It combined executive and legislative authority.
3. The National Council of Ministers (Federal Executive Council): Headed by the President, it was made up of both military officers and civilian ministers who administered the various ministries and executed government policy at the federal level.
4. The Council of State: An advisory body that included former heads of state, service chiefs and other notable figures, which advised the President on major national issues.
5. Rule by decree: Government was conducted through decrees issued by the AFRC, which had the force of law and could not be challenged in the ordinary courts; the constitution remained largely suspended.
6. State and local administration: Each state was administered by a Military Governor appointed by and answerable to the President, assisted by a State Executive Council. Local governments were run by appointed sole administrators or committees, later moving toward elected councils under the transition programme.
7. Retention of the judiciary: The regular courts continued to function in ordinary matters, though their jurisdiction was ousted in respect of decrees, and special military tribunals handled certain offences.
8. Transition machinery: The administration created bodies such as the Political Bureau, the Directorate for Social Mobilisation (MAMSER), the National Electoral Commission and the Constituent Assembly to run its programme of transition to civil rule.

The structure therefore fused executive and legislative power in a military hierarchy topped by the President, exercised largely through decrees and appointed officials at every level.

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The 1976 Local Government Reform was intended to make local governments the effective third tier of government and instruments of grassroots development. Despite this, local governments in Nigeria have remained largely inefficient. The reasons include the following.

1. Inadequate finance: Local governments depend heavily on statutory allocations from the federal and state governments and have a weak internal revenue base, so they lack the funds to discharge their functions effectively.
2. Undue interference by state governments: State governments frequently dissolve elected councils, appoint caretaker committees, delay the release of statutory allocations and dictate how funds are spent, thereby undermining local autonomy.
3. Corruption and financial mismanagement: Embezzlement, inflation of contracts and diversion of funds by council officials and functionaries deprive the councils of resources meant for development.
4. Shortage of qualified personnel: Many councils are staffed by poorly trained and unqualified personnel, and skilled workers are reluctant to serve in rural areas, weakening administrative capacity.
5. Political instability and frequent changes: Constant changes of government, especially military interventions and the frequent creation and dissolution of councils, prevent continuity and long-term planning.
6. Excessive functions with limited resources: Councils are assigned wide responsibilities that are disproportionate to the funds and manpower available to them.
7. Joint state-local government account: The operation of a joint account has enabled some state governments to withhold or divert funds belonging to local governments.
8. Political interference in appointments and contracts: Godfatherism and partisan considerations rather than merit often determine appointments and the award of contracts, lowering the quality of service.
9. Poor supervision and accountability: Weak monitoring and audit mechanisms allow inefficiency and waste to go unchecked.
10. Apathy of the local populace: Low citizen participation and lack of interest in local government affairs reduce the pressure on councils to perform.

These combined factors have kept many Nigerian local governments from delivering the grassroots development the 1976 reform envisaged.

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The successful operation of democracy in Nigeria has been hindered by the following factors:

1. Ethnicity and tribalism: Strong loyalty to ethnic groups rather than to the nation breeds division, and politics is often organised along ethnic lines.
2. Corruption: Widespread corruption among leaders diverts public funds and erodes public confidence in democratic institutions.
3. Electoral malpractice: Rigging, thuggery, vote-buying and manipulation of results deny the people genuine representation and legitimacy.
4. Illiteracy and ignorance: A large section of the electorate is uneducated and easily deceived or manipulated by politicians.
5. Poverty: Mass poverty makes voters susceptible to bribery and encourages political violence for money.
6. Military interference: Frequent military coups in the past interrupted democratic rule and weakened democratic institutions.
7. Godfatherism: The domination of politics by powerful godfathers undermines internal party democracy and the independence of elected officials.
8. Religious intolerance: Religious differences and fanaticism sometimes cause conflict and distort political choices.
9. Weak institutions: Weak and manipulated electoral bodies, judiciary and other institutions fail to check abuses effectively.
10. Insecurity and political violence: Insurgency, assassination and unrest disrupt the peaceful conduct of politics and elections.

(Any relevant points, well explained, are acceptable.)