WAEC SSCE - Government - 2011 (Essay)

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Local governments in Nigeria are the third tier of government meant to bring development to the grassroots, but they are confronted by many problems. Six of these are:

1. Inadequate finance: local governments lack sufficient funds; their internally generated revenue is small and the statutory allocations they receive are often too little to meet their responsibilities.
2. Undue interference by state governments: state governments interfere in local government affairs, control their funds through the joint state-local government account, and sometimes dissolve elected councils, thereby undermining their autonomy.
3. Corruption and embezzlement: many local government officials divert or embezzle public funds meant for development, leaving little for services.
4. Shortage of qualified and skilled personnel: local governments find it difficult to attract and retain competent, qualified staff, since skilled people prefer to work at state and federal levels.
5. Political instability and undemocratic practices: frequent dissolution of councils, use of unelected caretaker committees and electoral malpractices weaken local administration.
6. Poor infrastructure and inadequate facilities: lack of office accommodation, equipment, vehicles and other working materials hampers the effective performance of local governments.

Other problems include over-dependence on the federal and state governments, and the wide gap between the large populations they serve and the limited resources available.

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Taking Nigeria as the example, the major objectives of its foreign policy are:

1. Promotion and protection of the national interest: to safeguard the sovereignty, territorial integrity, security and independence of the country in its dealings with other states.
2. Promotion of African unity and integration: to work for the unity, co-operation and development of Africa, which is regarded as the centre-piece of Nigeria's foreign policy, through bodies such as the AU and ECOWAS.
3. Promotion of world peace and international co-operation: to support the peaceful settlement of disputes, contribute to international peacekeeping and co-operate with other nations through the United Nations and other bodies.
4. Promotion of the economic well-being of the country: to attract foreign investment, expand trade and secure economic and technical assistance for national development.

Other objectives include the defence of the dignity and rights of black people worldwide, respect for the sovereign equality of states, and non-interference in the internal affairs of other nations.

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The Commonwealth of Nations is a voluntary association of independent states, most of which were formerly under British rule. Member states derive the following benefits from the organisation:

1. Economic and financial assistance: members receive aid, loans, grants and technical assistance, for example through the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation, which supports development projects.
2. Promotion of trade among members: the Commonwealth encourages trade and economic co-operation among its members, sometimes on preferential terms, thereby boosting their economies.
3. Educational and cultural benefits: members enjoy scholarships, exchange of teachers and students, sharing of educational facilities and cultural exchanges, such as the Commonwealth Scholarship scheme.
4. Forum for consultation and co-operation: through meetings such as the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM), members discuss common problems and co-ordinate their positions on world issues.
5. Promotion of democracy, good governance and human rights: the Commonwealth encourages democratic values and can help resolve political crises and monitor elections in member states.
6. Sports and social interaction: the Commonwealth Games and other joint activities foster friendship, unity and healthy competition among the peoples of member states.

Members also gain from technical training, health and agricultural programmes, and the diplomatic support that comes from belonging to a large international body.

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Military intervention in politics can be discouraged and prevented in the following ways:

1. Good and accountable governance: civilian leaders should govern well, provide for the welfare of the people, avoid corruption and misrule, and give the military no genuine excuse to seize power.
2. Adequate welfare and professionalisation of the armed forces: soldiers should be well paid, well equipped and well trained, and made to imbibe a professional ethic that keeps them loyal to the constitution and out of politics.
3. Free, fair and credible elections: conducting transparent elections and respecting their results removes the political tension and disputes that often invite the military to intervene.
4. Civilian (democratic) control of the military: the armed forces should be firmly subordinated to the elected civilian authority, with clear constitutional provisions confining them to defence duties.
5. Strengthening democratic institutions and the rule of law: an independent judiciary, a vibrant legislature, a free press and respect for the constitution build public confidence in civilian rule and reduce the appeal of coups.

Additional measures include political education and mobilisation of the citizens to resist and condemn coups, and severe legal punishment for those who attempt to overthrow constitutional government.

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The French policy of Assimilation aimed at turning Africans in the colonies into black Frenchmen by making them adopt French language, culture, laws and citizenship. The French later abandoned or greatly modified this policy for the following reasons:

1. Cultural resistance of Africans: Africans were deeply attached to their own languages, religion, customs and traditions and refused to abandon them for French culture, so the policy could not succeed on a large scale.
2. Opposition from French businessmen and settlers: French merchants and settlers objected to granting Africans equal status and citizenship, fearing competition and loss of their privileged position.
3. Huge cost and impracticability: assimilating millions of Africans fully into French civilisation, with the schools, resources and administration it required, was too expensive and practically impossible.
4. Fear of political consequences: full assimilation would entitle large numbers of Africans to send representatives to the French Parliament, and the French feared being outnumbered and losing control of their own legislature.
5. Racial prejudice: many French people did not really believe that Africans could ever become the equals of Frenchmen, so they were unwilling to extend genuine equality to the colonised peoples.
6. Vastness of the territories and small assimilated population: the French West African territories were too large and populous, while only a tiny number of Africans (mainly in the Four Communes of Senegal) had been assimilated, showing the policy was unworkable on a wide scale.

For these reasons the French replaced assimilation with the policy of Association, which allowed Africans to retain much of their own culture while co-operating with French rule.

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Under colonial rule, the powers and authority of the traditional rulers in West Africa were greatly reduced in the following six ways:

1. Loss of sovereignty and supreme authority: the traditional rulers ceased to be sovereign; ultimate authority now lay with the colonial government, and they ruled only as subordinates of the colonial administration.
2. Appointment and deposition by colonial officers: the colonial government assumed the power to appoint, recognise, discipline and even depose traditional rulers, so that a chief who defied the government could be removed.
3. Loss of control over the army and defence: the traditional rulers lost their war-making powers and control over armed forces, as defence and security became the responsibility of the colonial government.
4. Loss of judicial powers: the establishment of colonial courts and the appointment of colonial judges took away much of the judicial authority of the chiefs, whose native courts were subordinated to the colonial legal system.
5. Loss of law-making powers: the power to make laws passed to the colonial legislature and the Governor, so the chiefs could no longer make binding laws for their people on their own.
6. Loss of control over taxation and revenue: the colonial government took over the assessment and collection of taxes and the control of public revenue, reducing the financial independence of the traditional rulers.

Other effects included the imposition of the alien policy of indirect rule (which turned some chiefs into mere agents), and the creation of new elites and warrant chiefs who undermined the prestige of legitimate rulers.

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The Civil Service Commission (or Public Service Commission) is an independent body established to manage personnel matters in the civil/public service and to insulate it from political interference. Four major functions are:

1. Recruitment and appointment: it recruits, selects and appoints suitably qualified persons into the various offices of the civil/public service on merit.
2. Promotion and advancement: it recommends and approves the promotion and advancement of civil servants based on merit, seniority and performance.
3. Discipline of civil servants: it exercises disciplinary control over officers, including the power to query, suspend, demote or dismiss those who misconduct themselves.
4. Postings, transfers and conditions of service: it handles the posting and transfer of officers and advises government on the conditions of service, welfare and general regulation of the service.

It also safeguards the neutrality and professionalism of the service by protecting officers from arbitrary political interference.

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(a) Four features of the 1979 Republican Constitution

1. Presidential system of government: it introduced an executive president who was both Head of State and Head of Government, replacing the parliamentary system of the First Republic.
2. Federalism: it retained a federal structure with a division of powers between the federal government and the states through exclusive, concurrent and residual lists.
3. Separation of powers with checks and balances: the executive, legislature and judiciary were made separate arms, each checking the others to prevent abuse of power.
4. Fundamental human rights: it entrenched the fundamental rights of citizens, which were justiciable and enforceable in the courts.

Other features included a bicameral legislature (Senate and House of Representatives), an independent judiciary, and the Fundamental Objectives and Directive Principles of State Policy.

(b) Two ways the President could be removed from office

1. Impeachment by the National Assembly: the President could be removed for gross misconduct through the impeachment process, requiring an investigation and a two-thirds (indeed a very high) majority vote of both houses of the National Assembly.
2. Permanent incapacity or medical incapability: the President could be removed if declared, through the prescribed medical procedure, to be permanently unable to discharge the functions of the office by reason of physical or mental infirmity.

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(a) Concept of political participation

Political participation refers to the various ways in which citizens involve themselves in the political affairs and decision-making processes of their state. It covers all the voluntary activities through which members of a society take part in choosing their leaders and in influencing the formation and conduct of government policy. Active political participation is a mark of a healthy democracy, since it enables the people to hold government accountable and to make their wishes known.

(b) Four methods of political participation

1. Voting in elections: registering and casting one's vote to choose leaders and representatives at local, state and national levels.
2. Membership of political parties: joining a political party and taking part in its activities, campaigns and mobilisation of support.
3. Contesting for elective office: standing as a candidate for a political position and seeking to be elected into public office.
4. Attending political rallies, meetings and discussions: taking part in campaigns, public debates and community meetings where political issues are discussed.

Other methods include holding public/political office, membership of pressure groups, and lawful demonstrations or petitions to influence government.

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Although the rule of law is a cherished democratic principle, its full application is limited by a number of factors:

1. Legal immunity of certain officials: office holders such as the President, Vice-President, Governors and Deputy Governors enjoy immunity from prosecution while in office, which conflicts with equality before the law.
2. Diplomatic immunity: foreign diplomats and ambassadors are exempt from the ordinary laws and courts of the host country, so they cannot be tried like ordinary citizens.
3. State of emergency: during an emergency the government may suspend some rights and detain persons without the normal legal process, thereby curtailing the rule of law.
4. Delegated legislation: the power given to the executive and its agencies to make subsidiary laws and regulations allows government to act in ways that limit the ordinary operation of the law.
5. Preventive detention and special powers: laws that permit detention without trial, and special powers granted to security agencies, restrict the liberty guaranteed by the rule of law.
6. Ignorance and poverty of citizens: many citizens are unaware of their legal rights or too poor to afford the cost of litigation, so they cannot enforce the rule of law in practice.
7. Discretionary powers of the police and administrators: the wide discretion exercised by the police and public officials can be abused, undermining equal treatment under the law.

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A two-party system is a system in which two major political parties dominate the political scene and alternate in the control of government, although other small parties may exist. Examples are found in the United States (Democrats and Republicans) and Britain (Conservative and Labour).

Merits of a two-party system

1. Political stability: it produces a clear majority party that forms a strong government, avoiding the frequent crises associated with coalitions.
2. Clear choice for voters: the electorate has a simple and clear choice between two alternative programmes and sets of leaders.
3. Effective opposition: the party out of power provides a strong, organised opposition that checks the government and offers itself as a ready alternative.
4. Reduced ethnic and sectional tension: because each party must appeal broadly to win, it tends to moderate extreme sectional demands and promote national unity.

Demerits of a two-party system

1. Limited choice: voters are restricted to only two real options, which may not reflect the full range of opinion in the country.
2. Neglect of minorities: the interests and views of small groups and minor parties may be ignored or under-represented.
3. Dictatorship of the ruling party: the majority party may become overbearing and impose its will, since it controls both the executive and the legislature.
4. Sharp division and rivalry: intense competition between the two parties can polarise the society into two hostile camps.

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Government is the machinery or institution through which the state carries out its functions and manages the affairs of the society. Six functions of government in a state are:

1. Maintenance of law and order: government makes and enforces laws and, through the police and courts, maintains peace, order and security within the state.
2. Defence of the state: government protects the country against external aggression and safeguards its territorial integrity through the armed forces.
3. Provision of social amenities and services: government provides essential services such as education, health care, roads, water, electricity and other infrastructure for the welfare of citizens.
4. Regulation of the economy: government manages and directs the economy through policies on taxation, spending, currency, trade and employment to promote economic growth and stability.
5. Protection of the rights and liberties of citizens: government guarantees and protects the fundamental human rights and freedoms of the people.
6. Conduct of external/foreign relations: government represents the state in its dealings with other countries, enters into treaties and promotes the interests of the state abroad.