WAEC SSCE - Government - 1997 (Essay)

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(a) Meaning of a confederation

A confederation is a loose union of independent and sovereign states which come together, usually by treaty or agreement, to form a central authority for the purpose of pursuing common goals such as defence, trade or foreign relations. In a confederation the component states retain their sovereignty and delegate only limited powers to the weak central body, and each state reserves the right to secede from the union at will. Examples include the old Senegambia Confederation and the early United States under the Articles of Confederation.

(b) Problems likely to arise in a confederal state

1. Weak central government: Because most powers remain with the component states, the central authority is too weak to enforce its decisions or provide effective leadership.
2. Threat of secession and disintegration: Since each unit retains the right to withdraw, the union is unstable and constantly threatened with break-up.
3. Difficulty in decision-making: Important decisions often require the consent of all or most of the units, which makes the process slow and cumbersome.
4. Lack of uniformity: Differences in laws, policies, currencies and standards among the units create confusion and hamper cooperation.
5. Rivalry and disunity among the units: Individual states may pursue selfish interests, leading to distrust, conflict and lack of common purpose.
6. Financial weakness: The central body depends on contributions from the units, which may be irregular or inadequate, leaving it poorly funded and ineffective.

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Despite their undemocratic origins, the various military governments that ruled Nigeria between 1966 and 1999 recorded a number of achievements. These include:

1. Preservation of national unity: The military kept Nigeria one by successfully prosecuting the civil war (1967 to 1970) and defeating secession, then pursuing reconciliation.
2. Creation of states and local governments: Successive military regimes created states (from 4 regions to 36 states) and local government councils, bringing government closer to the people and calming minority fears.
3. Reform of the local government system: The 1976 Local Government Reform by the Murtala/Obasanjo regime standardised local government as a uniform third tier of government throughout the country.
4. Development of infrastructure: The military built roads, bridges, ports, airports, refineries, universities and other infrastructure, aided by the oil boom.
5. Relocation of the federal capital: They established and moved the federal capital from Lagos to a central, more neutral location at Abuja.
6. Introduction of national programmes: Programmes such as Operation Feed the Nation, the Green Revolution, Universal Primary Education, the War Against Indiscipline and the National Youth Service Corps (NYSC) were introduced to promote development and national integration.
7. Return to civilian rule: The military twice organised transition programmes that handed over power to elected civilians (1979 and 1999), restoring democracy.
8. Active foreign policy and pan-Africanism: They championed African liberation, the anti-apartheid struggle, and the formation of ECOWAS in 1975.
9. Indigenisation of the economy: Decrees were promulgated to transfer ownership of certain businesses to Nigerians, promoting economic nationalism.

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Why some countries adopt written constitutions

A written constitution is one whose fundamental principles and rules of government are contained in a single, formal, documentary form. Countries adopt written constitutions for the following reasons:

1. Certainty and clarity: A written document sets out the powers, duties and limits of government clearly, so that there is little room for doubt or dispute over what the law of the constitution is.
2. Protection of fundamental rights: Writing down the constitution enables the basic rights and liberties of citizens to be entrenched and guaranteed against violation by the government.
3. Suitability for federations: In a federal state a written constitution is necessary to share powers clearly between the central and the component units and to prevent conflict between them.
4. Check on arbitrary government: By spelling out the limits of authority, a written constitution restrains rulers from abusing power and makes them govern within defined bounds.
5. Stability and permanence: Because it is usually rigid and difficult to amend, a written constitution provides a stable and enduring framework of government that cannot be changed on a whim.
6. Reference point and settling of disputes: It serves as a supreme reference document to which the courts and citizens can turn to resolve constitutional disputes.
7. Guarantee against a return to bad rule: Newly independent or post-crisis states adopt it to guard against dictatorship and to guide the conduct of government.

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Nigeria has consistently made Africa the centrepiece of its foreign policy and maintains friendly relations with other African states in the following ways:

1. Active membership of African organisations: Nigeria is a leading and founding member of the African Union (formerly OAU) and ECOWAS, using these bodies to promote cooperation, unity and good relations with other African states.
2. Financial and material assistance: Nigeria gives economic aid, grants, loans and relief materials to needy African countries, and established the Nigerian Trust Fund and the Technical Aid Corps to assist other African nations.
3. Peacekeeping and conflict resolution: Nigeria contributes troops and resources to peacekeeping operations, notably leading ECOMOG interventions in Liberia and Sierra Leone, and mediating in disputes among African states.
4. Support for liberation movements and anti-apartheid struggle: Nigeria gave moral, material and diplomatic support to freedom fighters in Southern Africa and was a frontline campaigner against apartheid in South Africa.
5. Exchange of diplomatic representatives: Nigeria establishes and maintains embassies and high commissions in other African capitals, promoting dialogue and cooperation.
6. Provision of technical manpower and scholarships: Through the Technical Aid Corps, Nigeria sends doctors, teachers and other professionals to serve in other African countries, and offers scholarships to African students.
7. Signing of treaties and bilateral agreements: Nigeria enters into agreements on trade, culture and security with fellow African states to strengthen ties.
8. Non-interference and respect for sovereignty: Nigeria respects the territorial integrity and independence of other African states and settles disputes peacefully.
9. Economic and trade cooperation: Nigeria promotes cross-border trade and joint development projects with neighbours and other African partners.

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Causes of the 1953 Kano riot

The Kano riot of May 1953 broke out following the political crisis over the motion for self-government in 1956.

1. The self-government motion of 1953: Anthony Enahoro of the Action Group moved a motion in the House of Representatives for self-government in 1956, which the Northern members opposed and amended, deepening North-South division.
2. Walk-out and insult of Northern leaders: Northern representatives were jeered at and abused by Southern crowds in Lagos when they opposed the motion, which angered the North.
3. The Southern parties' tour of the North: The Action Group and the NCNC planned to carry their campaign for self-government into Kano, which the Northerners resented as provocation on their soil.
4. North-South mutual suspicion: Deep-seated distrust, cultural and religious differences and fear of Southern domination provided the tense atmosphere in which the riot erupted.
5. Economic rivalry: Jealousy and competition between Northern and Southern (mainly Igbo) traders and residents in Kano's Sabon Gari sharpened the tension.

Implications of the riot

1. It led to loss of many lives and destruction of property in Kano.
2. It widened and hardened the division and bitterness between the North and the South.
3. It convinced the North of the need to protect its interests, strengthening demands for a federal structure and regional autonomy.
4. It hastened the constitutional conferences in London and Lagos (1953 and 1954) and the adoption of the federal Lyttelton Constitution of 1954.
5. It sowed early seeds of ethnic and regional distrust that troubled Nigerian politics thereafter.

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Reasons for the creation of local governments in Nigeria

1. To bring government nearer to the people: Local governments were created so that government and its services could reach the grassroots and the rural populace who are far from the state and federal capitals.
2. To promote grassroots participation: They give ordinary citizens the opportunity to take part in the affairs of their own communities and in the process of governance.
3. To ensure even and rapid development: Local councils were established to spread development to all parts of the country and to provide basic amenities such as roads, markets, water and health facilities at the local level.
4. To relieve the central and state governments: They take over the provision of purely local services, thereby reducing the burden on the higher levels of government and allowing them to concentrate on wider matters.
5. To serve as training grounds for leadership: Local governments help to train and produce future political leaders and administrators by giving them experience at the grassroots.
6. To provide effective and efficient administration: Because they understand local needs and conditions, local councils can administer their areas and respond to local problems more efficiently than a distant central authority.
7. To act as a link between the people and the higher governments: They serve as a channel through which the needs of the people are conveyed to, and the policies of government are carried down to, the local communities.

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The Nigerian civil war, fought between the Federal Government and the secessionist Republic of Biafra from 1967 to 1970, had both positive and negative consequences.

Positive consequences

1. Preservation of national unity: The war ended in the defeat of secession and the reintegration of the Eastern Region, keeping Nigeria one indivisible country.
2. Policy of reconciliation (no victor, no vanquished): The Federal Government adopted a policy of reconciliation, rehabilitation and reconstruction which helped to reintegrate the Igbo and heal wounds.
3. Creation of states: The creation of twelve states in 1967 weakened the power of the old regions, calmed minority fears and brought government closer to the people.
4. Growth of the armed forces and national institutions: The war led to the expansion, modernisation and strengthening of the Nigerian military and other national institutions.
5. Rise of Nigeria's stature in Africa: Surviving the war and later using its oil wealth, Nigeria emerged as a respected power committed to African liberation and unity.
6. Boost to local industry and self-reliance: The blockade forced ingenuity and encouraged local production and technological improvisation, especially on the Biafran side.

Negative consequences

1. Loss of lives: Over a million people died from fighting, starvation and disease, especially children, in a great humanitarian tragedy.
2. Destruction of property and infrastructure: Homes, roads, bridges, schools, hospitals and industries were destroyed, especially in the war zones.
3. Economic dislocation: The war drained huge resources, disrupted the economy, caused inflation and diverted funds from development.
4. Bitterness, mistrust and disunity: It left behind deep ethnic suspicion, feelings of marginalisation and a legacy of distrust that still affects national politics.
5. Displacement and refugee crisis: Millions were rendered homeless refugees, and many families were broken up.
6. Entrenchment of the military in politics: The war strengthened the role and influence of the military, prolonging military rule.

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Why the development of nationalist activities was slow in the French West African colonies

1. The policy of assimilation: France sought to turn the Africans into black Frenchmen who would see themselves as French citizens rather than a distinct people; this weakened the sense of separate identity and the urge to demand independence.
2. Representation in the French Parliament: Selected Africans, especially the assimilated elite, were allowed to sit as deputies in the French National Assembly in Paris, which gave them a stake in the French system and reduced agitation for self-rule.
3. The policy of association and direct rule: France governed its colonies as overseas territories tied closely to France and administered them directly, suppressing local initiative and leaving little room for independent political organisation.
4. Harsh and repressive administration: The French used forced labour, the indigenat (arbitrary punishment code) and strict controls that intimidated the people and discouraged open political protest.
5. Limited Western education: Fewer people received the kind of Western education that produced a large, radical, politically conscious elite, so there were fewer educated nationalists to lead the struggle.
6. Economic dependence on France: The colonies were economically tied to and dependent on France for trade, aid and a common currency, which made many reluctant to break away.
7. Restrictions on the press and political parties: Tight control over newspapers and political associations limited the spread of nationalist ideas and the mobilisation of the people.

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Why it is necessary to uphold the principle of the Rule of Law in a state

The rule of law means the supremacy of the law over all persons, so that everybody, whether ruler or ruled, is equal before and subject to the same law. It is necessary to uphold it for the following reasons:

1. It guarantees equality before the law: Upholding it ensures that all citizens, regardless of status, wealth or office, are treated equally and are subject to the same laws and courts.
2. It protects the fundamental rights of citizens: The rule of law safeguards the liberty, property and other basic rights of the individual against arbitrary interference by the government or by fellow citizens.
3. It checks dictatorship and abuse of power: By binding rulers to the law, it prevents the arbitrary and tyrannical use of power and compels the government to act only within the limits set by law.
4. It ensures fair hearing and justice: It guarantees that no person is punished except for a breach of law proved before an ordinary court, and that everyone is presumed innocent until proven guilty and given a fair trial.
5. It promotes peace, order and stability: Where the law is supreme and impartially enforced, citizens have confidence in the system, disputes are settled lawfully, and orderly and stable government is assured.
6. It encourages good governance and accountability: Leaders are made accountable for their actions and are compelled to govern justly, which strengthens public confidence and attracts investment and development.

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(a) Definition of public opinion

Public opinion is the collective view, belief or feeling held and expressed by a substantial or dominant section of the people in a community on an issue of common concern at a given time. It is not necessarily the opinion of every individual, but the prevailing or preponderant opinion of the people on a matter of public interest to which government is expected to pay attention.

(b) Characteristics of public opinion

1. It is collective: It is the shared opinion of a large group or the majority of the people, not the private view of a single individual.
2. It is on a public issue: It relates to matters of general or common interest to the community, such as government policy, rather than purely personal affairs.
3. It is dynamic and changeable: Public opinion is not fixed; it shifts from time to time with new information, events and circumstances.
4. It is expressed: To be effective it must be openly made known through such means as the press, elections, protests, opinion polls and public debate.
5. It is rational and reasoned: Genuine public opinion is based on reflection and reasoning on an issue rather than on mere impulse.
6. It influences government: A well-formed public opinion carries weight and tends to guide or compel the government to act in a particular way.