WAEC SSCE - Geography - 2013 (Essay)

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(a) Five physical factors that hinder the development of railway transportation in Nigeria

1. Rivers and swamps: the many rivers (Niger, Benue) and the Niger Delta swamps require expensive bridges and embankments, raising construction costs.
2. Highlands and rugged relief: the Jos Plateau, the Western and Eastern uplands and inselbergs force costly cuttings, tunnels and detours.
3. Dense tropical forest in the south, which is difficult and expensive to clear for the line.
4. Heavy rainfall and flooding in the wet south, which erodes embankments, washes out tracks and disrupts services.
5. Loose and shifting sands and drought in the far north, together with laterite/hard rock in places, which make track-laying and maintenance difficult.

(b) Five ways transportation contributes to the economic development of Nigeria

• Movement of raw materials and finished goods between farms, mines, factories, markets and ports, promoting industry and trade.
• Opening up of the interior: roads, rail and waterways make remote farming and mining areas accessible for production and settlement.
• Encouragement of agriculture: farmers move perishable produce quickly to urban markets, raising incomes.
• Employment and revenue: the transport sector provides many jobs and generates government revenue.
• National integration and growth of towns: transport links different parts of the country, promotes tourism and helps towns grow at junctions and ports.

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(a) Four functions of an urban centre

1. Administrative function: it serves as a centre of government, housing offices, courts and headquarters.
2. Commercial function: it is a market and trading centre with shops, banks and business houses.
3. Industrial function: it is a place of manufacturing where factories and processing plants are sited.
4. Service function: it provides education, health, transport and recreation for itself and the surrounding region.

Also acceptable: cultural/religious, defence, mining, port or route-junction functions.

(b) Four problems of urbanization

• Housing shortage and growth of slums as people crowd into the city faster than housing can be built.
• Traffic congestion caused by too many vehicles and inadequate roads.
• Unemployment and crime as rural migrants fail to find jobs.
• Pressure on social services and pollution: water, electricity, schools, hospitals and waste disposal cannot cope, and the environment becomes polluted.

(c) Possible solutions to two of the problems

• Housing shortage: government and private developers should build more low-cost housing estates and high-rise flats, and provide site-and-service schemes and mortgage loans.
• Traffic congestion: construct more roads, flyovers and mass-transit systems (buses, rail), and encourage decentralisation of workplaces to reduce commuter pressure.

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(a) Outline map of Africa showing rivers and dams

Key: River Nile, River Volta and River Zambezi are shown. The Aswan High Dam is on the River Nile in Egypt, and the Akosombo Dam is on the River Volta in Ghana.

(b) Benefits of hydroelectric power to the people of Africa

1. It supplies electricity for domestic uses such as lighting, cooking, refrigeration and entertainment, thereby improving the standard of living.
2. It provides energy for industries, mines, offices and processing plants, thus promoting industrial development.
3. It creates employment during the construction, operation and maintenance of dams and power stations.
4. It earns revenue for governments through the sale of electricity, including electricity exported to neighbouring countries.
5. It conserves foreign exchange that would have been used to import petroleum products or fuel for thermal power stations.
6. It encourages the growth of towns and other settlements around power stations and industrial areas.
7. It provides a relatively cheap and renewable source of energy and reduces air pollution from fuel-burning power stations.

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(a) Five factors responsible for the population distribution in West Africa

1. Relief: lowlands, plains and river valleys are densely settled because they are easy to farm and build on, while rugged highlands are sparsely peopled.
2. Climate and rainfall: areas with reliable, moderate rainfall attract dense settlement, while the very dry Sahel and desert margins and the excessively wet swamps repel people.
3. Soil fertility: fertile alluvial and volcanic soils (for example the cocoa and food-crop belts) carry dense farming populations; poor, leached soils carry few people.
4. Economic opportunities: mining areas, industrial and commercial towns and ports (Lagos, Accra, Dakar) draw large populations by offering jobs.
5. Historical and social factors: long-established kingdoms, trade routes and safe, disease-free areas built up dense populations, while slave-raiding and disease (tsetse fly, river blindness) once emptied other areas.

Also acceptable: availability of water supply and good transport routes.

(b) Five advantages of low population density in some parts of West Africa

• Less pressure on land, so farmland, grazing and building space are readily available.
• Adequate food and resources per person, reducing the risk of shortage.
• Less environmental degradation such as deforestation, overgrazing, erosion and pollution.
• Reduced pressure on social services (schools, hospitals, water), so the few people are better served.
• Room for expansion and development, including large farms, ranching, forest reserves and future settlement, with less unemployment and congestion.

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(a) Outline map of Nigeria

Key: The shaded north-eastern area is the Chad Basin. The shaded south-western upland area is the Western Highlands (Yoruba Plateau). Maiduguri is an important town in the Chad Basin.

(b) Geography of the Western Highlands

(i) Relief

• The Western Highlands, also called the Yoruba Plateau, are in south-western Nigeria.
• They are mainly underlain by ancient Basement Complex rocks.
• The area is an undulating upland, generally about 300 to 600 m above sea level, rising above the adjoining lowlands.
• It consists of groups of hills, ridges, isolated residual hills and dissected valleys. Some hills are steep-sided.
• Notable hills include the Idanre, Apata, Epinmi and Kukuru hills. A few summits, such as parts of the Idanre and Ilesa hills, exceed 1,000 m.

(ii) Economic activities

• Farmers cultivate food crops such as yam, cassava, maize and vegetables.
• Cash crops grown include cocoa, kolanut, oil palm and rubber.
• Livestock rearing is practised, especially in the more open grassland areas to the north.
• Mining and quarrying occur, including marble at Igbetti, gold around Ilesa and granite quarrying.
• There are industries such as textile production, tobacco processing, rubber processing and other small-scale manufacturing.
• Local crafts include tie-and-dye, weaving and basket making.
• Commercial activities are important in towns, while scenic hills and cultural sites encourage tourism.

(iii) Problems of development

• The hilly and dissected terrain makes the construction of roads, railways, buildings and other infrastructure difficult and costly.
• Removal of vegetation and cultivation on slopes promote soil erosion.
• Many soils are lateritic, leached and relatively infertile, requiring the use of manure or fertiliser for sustained farming.
• High population density, poor physical planning and urban congestion put pressure on land and services.
• Flooding may occur along river valleys in built-up areas.
• Land-tenure problems can hinder large-scale farming and investment.
• Rural-urban migration reduces the labour force available for agricultural production in some rural communities.
• Pollution from industries, quarrying and urban waste creates environmental problems.

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(a) Sketch map of Africa showing two gold-mining areas in South Africa

(b) Shaft (underground) mining method

Gold-bearing reefs in South Africa may lie deep below the surface. A vertical shaft is sunk down to the reef, and horizontal tunnels are made along it. Miners use explosives to break the gold-bearing rock. The broken rock is loaded and carried to the surface, often by conveyors or trucks. It is then crushed and treated with chemicals to extract the gold, before further refining at a smelter. Deep mines also require ventilation, water pumping and support to prevent collapse.

(c) Four importance of gold mining to South Africa

1. It earns foreign exchange when gold is exported.
2. It provides employment and income for mine workers and workers in related industries.
3. It provides revenue to the government through taxes and royalties.
4. It promotes the growth of towns, infrastructure and supporting industries such as engineering, transport and power supply.

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(a) Sketch map of Nigeria

Key: ● Town; shaded area = industrial zone; ★ = vehicle-assembly industry.

The two industrial zones shown are:

1. Lagos industrial zone, with Lagos as the town.
2. Kano industrial zone, with Kano as the town.
3. A vehicle-assembly plant is shown in the Lagos industrial zone.

(b) Factors favouring the location of a vehicle-assembly industry in Lagos

1. Good port facilities: Lagos has an international seaport through which completely knocked-down vehicle parts, machinery and spare parts can be imported conveniently and at relatively low transport cost.
2. Large market and good transport network: Lagos has a very large population and high demand for vehicles. Its roads, rail links, airport, banks and other support services also make distribution and business operations easier.

(c) Problems facing manufacturing industries in Nigeria

1. Erratic power supply: Industries spend heavily on generators and fuel when public electricity supply is unreliable.
2. Inadequate capital and costly loans: High interest rates and difficulty in obtaining credit limit the purchase of machinery and expansion.
3. Dependence on imported raw materials and spare parts: Foreign-exchange shortages and high import costs raise production costs.
4. Poor transport and other infrastructure: Bad roads, inadequate water supply and poor facilities delay the movement of inputs and finished goods.

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(a) Definition of international trade

International trade is the exchange of goods and services between one country and another across national boundaries. It consists of imports (goods bought from other countries) and exports (goods sold to other countries).

(b) Five benefits of international trade

1. Provision of goods not produced at home: a country obtains raw materials, machinery and manufactured goods it cannot produce itself.
2. Earning of foreign exchange from exports, which is used to pay for imports and finance development.
3. Wider market for surplus produce: countries can sell their surplus goods abroad, encouraging greater production and specialisation.
4. Promotion of specialisation and efficiency: each country concentrates on what it produces best (comparative advantage), raising output and quality.
5. Fostering of friendship, cooperation and transfer of technology and skills between trading nations, and cheaper goods for consumers.

(c) Four factors that limit trade between African countries and the USA

• Similarity of exports: Africa mostly exports primary raw materials and the USA wants finished goods, so African countries have little the USA needs and cannot easily afford US manufactures.
• Long distance and high transport costs between the two, which raise the price of traded goods.
• Trade barriers such as high tariffs, quotas and strict quality standards imposed by the USA on African products.
• Weak currencies and shortage of foreign exchange in Africa, together with poor manufacturing capacity, limiting how much can be bought from the USA.

Also acceptable: differences in language/business practice, and unstable political conditions in some African countries.

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(a) Three advantages of each mode of transport

(i) Rail transport

• It can carry large, heavy and bulky loads (minerals, timber, farm produce) at low cost over land.
• It is fast and reliable over medium and long land distances and runs to a fixed timetable.
• It can reach interior areas away from the coast and is little affected by traffic on roads.

(ii) Water transport

• It is the cheapest means of moving very bulky, heavy goods over long distances.
• It needs no expensive track to be built on rivers, lakes and the sea (a natural highway).
• It can carry very large cargoes such as crude oil, grain and machinery in a single voyage.

(b) Four reasons why some African countries have not been able to sustain their rail transport

1. Shortage of capital to maintain the lines, buy new locomotives and coaches and provide spare parts.
2. Obsolete and worn-out equipment leading to frequent breakdowns, derailments and unreliable services.
3. Poor management and inadequate skilled personnel to run and repair the system efficiently.
4. Competition from road transport, which is more flexible and door-to-door, drawing passengers and goods away from rail.

Also acceptable: difficult relief and narrow-gauge/single-track lines, vandalism of rail property, and low, uneconomic traffic.