WAEC SSCE - Government - 1996

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The concept of sovereignty was popularized by Jean Bodin. He was a French jurist and political philosopher who lived in the 16th century. Bodin believed that the state should have supreme power or authority within its own territory, which he referred to as "sovereignty." This means that the state should be free from external interference in its internal affairs. The concept of sovereignty has since become a fundamental principle of modern political theory, and is seen as a key component of the nation-state.

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The political party that transformed from a cultural organization known as The Jam'iyyar Mutanen Arewa was the Northern People's Congress (NPC). The Jam'iyyar Mutanen Arewa was a cultural organization formed in 1949 by Northern Nigerian elites to promote the interests of the Hausa-Fulani people. In 1951, the organization transformed into a political party and became known as the Northern People's Congress (NPC). The NPC was one of the major political parties in Nigeria in the 1950s and 1960s and played a significant role in the country's struggle for independence from British colonial rule. It was particularly influential in the Northern Region, where it was able to mobilize support from the Hausa-Fulani population. Overall, the NPC's transformation from a cultural organization to a political party was a significant development in the history of Nigerian politics, and it had a major impact on the country's path to independence and its subsequent political development.

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A major objection to the Indirect Rule system was the administration through illiterate heads. Indirect rule was a system of governance introduced by the British in their colonial territories in Africa. The system involved ruling through local traditional leaders who were given powers to rule on behalf of the colonial masters. However, these traditional leaders were often illiterate and lacked the necessary skills to govern effectively, leading to poor governance and administration. The objection to the Indirect Rule system was that governance should be carried out by competent and educated individuals who would be better equipped to manage the affairs of the people.

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The headquarters of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) is located in The Hague, Netherlands. The ICJ is the primary judicial body of the United Nations and is responsible for settling legal disputes between states and providing advisory opinions on legal questions submitted by authorized UN organs and specialized agencies. The court was established in 1945 and has been located in The Hague since its inception. The Hague is also home to many other international organizations and courts, including the International Criminal Court, making it an important hub for international law and justice. Overall, The Hague is an essential location for the international legal community, and the headquarters of the ICJ represents an important symbol of the importance of international law in maintaining global peace and security.

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Karl Marx is regarded as the father of Communism. Marx was a German philosopher, economist, and political theorist who developed the idea of Communism, which is a political and economic system that advocates for the abolition of private property and a classless society. Marx believed that the history of society was characterized by class struggles between the bourgeoisie (the owners of the means of production) and the proletariat (the working class), and that the only way to achieve true equality was through a socialist revolution that would overthrow the bourgeoisie and establish a socialist state. His ideas were influential in the development of many Communist movements around the world. The other options listed are not considered the father of Communism, as they were not associated with the development of Marxist theory or the Communist movement.

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A constitution can be best described as the fundamental laws that guide the government of a state. It is a set of rules and principles that establish the framework for how a government operates and how power is distributed among different branches of government. It outlines the rights and responsibilities of citizens and the limits on the power of the government. While a constitution may include some specific laws and regulations, it is more than just a book of laws. It is a foundational document that sets the standards for the entire legal system of a country.

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Military intervention in politics refers to when the military involves itself in the political affairs of a country, either by seizing power or influencing political decisions. While there may be various reasons why the military intervenes in politics, some reasons are not justifiable. Of the options listed, all but one are justifiable reasons for military intervention in politics. Corrupt practices by civilian administrations, tribalism and nepotism, election malpractices, and ailing economic situations can destabilize a country and threaten its security. In such situations, the military may intervene to restore stability and protect the nation's interests. However, the regular promotion of military officers is not a justifiable reason for military intervention in politics. Military promotions are an internal matter for the military and should not influence political decisions. Military officers should be promoted based on their merit and abilities, not for political reasons. Therefore, the regular promotion of military officers is not a legitimate reason for the military to intervene in politics.

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In a federal system of government, the component units, also known as states or provinces, have their own governments and derive their powers from the constitution. These units have some degree of autonomy and are not subordinate to one another, but rather work together with the central authority in a shared system of governance. While the powers of the central government are defined by the constitution, the component units have powers to make laws and policies that are relevant to their specific needs and circumstances. However, the powers of the component units are not equal to those of the central government as some functions are reserved for the central government such as national defense and foreign policy.

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The French policy of assimilation was based on the idea that the African culture was inferior. This policy was implemented in French colonies in Africa and aimed at imposing French culture, language, and values on the African population. The French believed that their culture was superior to African culture and that the Africans needed to be civilized by adopting French culture. They viewed African culture as primitive, barbaric, and backward, and considered it as an obstacle to modernization and progress. The policy of assimilation was meant to eradicate African culture and replace it with French culture, making the Africans more like the French in every way. This policy was highly controversial and has been criticized for its negative impact on African societies and cultures.

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The desire for union is the basic factor in the formation of a federation. This means that the member states or regions are willing to come together to form a larger entity with a shared purpose, while retaining their individual autonomy and identity. The desire for union is often driven by the need to pool resources, enhance security, and create a more cohesive and integrated national identity. In a federation, the central government has limited powers, with most powers reserved for the states or regions. This ensures that each state or region has a measure of self-government and can address its unique needs and concerns.

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The purpose of an election is to allow people to participate in choosing their leaders. Elections provide citizens with the opportunity to vote for the candidate or political party that they believe will best represent their interests and govern the country. This is an important aspect of democratic governance as it allows for the peaceful transfer of power and ensures that elected officials are accountable to the people. While election results are declared after the voting process is completed, the primary purpose of an election is to allow citizens to have a say in who will govern them.

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An important feature of a unitary constitution is the concentration of power. In a unitary system of government, power is concentrated in the central or national government, and the local or regional governments derive their authority from the central government. This means that the central government has the ultimate authority to make decisions and enact laws that apply to the entire country, while the local or regional governments only have the power that is granted to them by the central government. This system allows for a more efficient and streamlined decision-making process and ensures that national policies are implemented consistently throughout the country. However, it can also lead to a lack of autonomy for the local or regional governments and limit their ability to address specific local issues.

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Universal adult suffrage is the principle that all adult citizens have an equal right to vote in an election. It is very popular today because it allows for greater political participation, giving all citizens an equal say in the decision-making process regardless of their socio-economic status or other demographic factors. This helps to ensure that all voices are heard and that the government represents the interests of the entire population, not just a select few. Universal adult suffrage encourages equal political representation and helps to prevent the establishment of authoritarian regimes that do not respect the will of the people. It also allows for a multi-party system where different political parties can compete on an equal footing to present their ideas and policies to the electorate.

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In a presidential system, the head of government is called the Executive President. The Executive President is the highest-ranking official in the government and is responsible for carrying out the policies and decisions of the state. They are typically elected by the people and serve as both the head of state and the head of government. Unlike in a parliamentary system where the Prime Minister is the head of government, the Executive President in a presidential system is not accountable to the legislature and is directly elected by the people. They have significant executive powers, including the ability to veto legislation and to appoint and dismiss government officials.

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A public corporation is a type of organization that is established by the government to carry out certain functions on behalf of the public. It is not owned by any individual, but rather by the state or federal government. Therefore, and are not correct because a public corporation is not set up to make a profit for the government nor is it owned by the minister of commerce. Public corporations are usually created to provide essential services for the people at a low cost, which aligns with. For example, a public corporation may be established to manage public utilities such as electricity, water, and sewage systems. The primary goal of such a corporation is to ensure that these services are accessible and affordable for all citizens. is also not correct because a public corporation is not owned by the governor of a state. Finally, is partly correct because a public corporation can be established by a bye-law, which is a type of legislation that is passed by a local government to regulate its affairs.

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The Nigeria attained republican status through the 1963 constitution means that it severed the remaining links with the British monarch. This means that Nigeria was no longer a British colony and became an independent nation with its own head of state, rather than being ruled by the British monarch as a constitutional monarchy. The constitution also introduced the executive presidential system of government, created a federal system of government, and introduced a multi-party system, but these changes are not directly related to Nigeria becoming a republic.

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The option that is not a method of election is "Single-member constituency." Single-member constituency is not a method of election, but rather a type of electoral district. It refers to a constituency or district that elects only one representative to a legislative body, such as a parliament or congress. The other options are all methods of election. - Simple majority is a method of election where the candidate with the most votes is elected, even if they do not receive an absolute majority (more than 50%) of the votes. - Proportional representation is a method of election where seats in a legislative body are allocated proportionally to the number of votes received by each political party or group. - Plurality system is a method of election where the candidate with the most votes in a single-member constituency is elected, regardless of whether they receive an absolute majority or not. - Absolute majority is a method of election where the candidate must receive more than 50% of the votes to be elected. If no candidate receives an absolute majority, a run-off election may be held.

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The disadvantage of confederation is that it encourages secession. Confederation is a system of government where states or regions retain their sovereignty and delegate limited powers to a central government. In a confederate system, the central government is weak and cannot effectively enforce laws or policies. This may lead to states or regions wanting to secede from the confederation to establish their own independent countries. Therefore, this is a major disadvantage of confederation.

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The term manifesto refers to the proposed program or set of policies of a political party or candidate. It is a public declaration of the party's intentions and goals for the future. A manifesto typically outlines the party's position on important issues, such as the economy, social policy, and foreign affairs, and may include specific proposals for legislation or policy changes. The manifesto serves as a blueprint for the party's campaign and a guide for voters to understand what the party stands for and what they can expect if the party is elected into power. In summary, a manifesto is a statement of a political party's beliefs, values, and proposed actions if elected.

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Public opinion can be defined as the collective view, attitude, or sentiment of the people in a society or community towards a particular issue or topic. It is a measure of what the majority of people think or believe about a specific subject matter. Public opinion is not just the view of one individual, but the collective view of a group of people. It can be shaped and influenced by various factors, such as the media, political leaders, social norms, and personal experiences. It is an important aspect of democratic governance as it helps to shape policies and decision-making processes based on the views and desires of the people. The other options listed are not accurate definitions of public opinion.

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The second Nigerian military leader to be assassinated in a military coup d'état was General Murtala Mohammed. He came into power on July 30, 1975, after leading a coup that ousted General Yakubu Gowon from power. During his brief tenure as Head of State, General Mohammed instituted a number of reforms aimed at tackling corruption and improving the economy. However, on February 13, 1976, he was assassinated in a failed coup attempt led by Lieutenant Colonel Buka Suka Dimka. The other options listed were also involved in military coups and attempted coups in Nigeria, but they were not the second military leader to be assassinated.

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The political parties which formed a coalition government at the center after the 1954 general elections in Nigeria were the NPC (Northern People's Congress) and NCNC (National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons).

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The most significant achievement of the United Nations Organization (UNO) since its formation is the prevention of another world war. The UNO was established in 1945 after the Second World War to promote international peace and security, and one of its primary goals was to prevent another global conflict. The UNO has been successful in this mission, as there has not been a third world war since its inception. The UNO has played a critical role in resolving conflicts, promoting disarmament, and fostering cooperation among nations, which have helped to maintain peace and stability in the world. Although there have been regional conflicts and tensions, the UNO has been instrumental in preventing them from escalating into a global conflict.

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Fundamental human rights are basic rights that every individual is entitled to by virtue of being human, regardless of their gender, race, religion, or any other status. Enshrining these rights in the constitution helps to protect the rights of individuals in society. It ensures that these rights are recognized and upheld by the government and that no individual or group can infringe upon them. In essence, the inclusion of fundamental human rights in the constitution serves as a safeguard against any form of abuse, oppression, or discrimination of individuals in society.

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The simple majority system of voting is a type of voting system in which the candidate or option that receives the most votes is declared the winner. One advantage of this system is that it is simple and easy to operate. In this system, voters do not need to rank candidates or make complex decisions. They simply choose their preferred candidate or option, and the winner is determined by the candidate or option with the highest number of votes. This simplicity makes it easy for voters to participate in the electoral process and for electoral officials to count the votes. Another advantage of the simple majority system is that it can produce an accurate result of an election, especially when the electorate is large. This is because the winner is determined by the candidate or option with the most votes, which is a clear and objective measure of popular support. However, it is important to note that the simple majority system of voting is not without its disadvantages. For example, it can lead to the marginalization of

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Local authorities impose rates primarily to provide essential amenities for citizens. Rates are a type of tax levied on property owners, and the revenue generated from these taxes is used by local governments to provide public services such as roads, water supply, waste management, and public health facilities. These services are essential for the well-being and safety of citizens, and they require funding to maintain and improve. Therefore, local authorities impose rates to ensure that there is a source of revenue to fund these services. It is also an obligation of citizens to pay such rates, as failure to do so can result in penalties or legal action. The other options listed are not accurate reasons for why local authorities impose rates.

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Question time in the legislature affords members the opportunity to ask questions and raise important issues related to the work of the government. During question time, members of the legislature are allowed to pose questions to government ministers and officials, who are then required to answer them. This provides an opportunity for legislators to hold the government accountable for its policies and actions, and to seek clarification on issues of public importance. Question time is a crucial aspect of parliamentary democracy, as it allows elected representatives to scrutinize the work of the government and to raise concerns on behalf of their constituents. It is also an important forum for debating and criticizing government policies and decisions, and for promoting transparency and accountability in the governance process.

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The general strike of 1954 in Nigeria gave force to the demands of the nationalist movement. The general strike was a widespread protest organized by workers across Nigeria to demand better working conditions, higher wages, and improved political representation. The strike was led by prominent Nigerian nationalist leaders such as Nnamdi Azikiwe and Obafemi Awolowo, who used the opportunity to highlight the injustices of British colonial rule and demand greater autonomy for Nigeria. The strike was largely successful in achieving its aims, as it drew international attention to the plight of the Nigerian people and forced the British colonial authorities to negotiate with the nationalist leaders. As a result, the demands of the nationalist movement gained greater traction and momentum, eventually leading to Nigeria's independence from British rule in 1960. Therefore, the correct answer to the question is "demands of the nationalist movement." The other options are not related to the general strike of 1954 in Nigeria.

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The Rule of Law is likely to be most enhanced in a parliamentary political system. In a parliamentary system, the executive branch (which includes the Prime Minister and Cabinet) is accountable to the legislative branch (which includes Parliament). This means that decisions made by the executive branch are subject to scrutiny and debate in the legislative branch, and the government is held accountable for its actions. Additionally, parliamentary systems often have an independent judiciary that is separate from the executive and legislative branches. This separation of powers ensures that the Rule of Law is upheld and that no single branch of government can exercise too much power. In contrast, military, fascist, monarchical, and totalitarian political systems are characterized by a concentration of power in the hands of a few individuals or institutions, which can lead to abuses of power and a disregard for the Rule of Law.

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During the colonial period, traditional rulers served as a link between the people and the government. The colonial period refers to the time when European countries established colonies in various parts of the world, including Africa. During this period, traditional rulers, who were the leaders of various ethnic groups, continued to exercise their authority over their people. The colonial powers recognized the traditional rulers as important figures in the governance of their colonies. However, they also sought to undermine their authority and assert their own control over the people. As a result, the colonial governments used the traditional rulers as intermediaries between the people and the government. The traditional rulers were responsible for collecting taxes, maintaining law and order, and mobilizing their people for labor and military service. Therefore, the best description of the position of traditional rulers during the colonial period is that they served as a link between the people and the government. They were not directly involved in the government or part of the executive arm of government. They did not make laws for the people, but they did help to enforce colonial laws and policies. Additionally, they were not directly accountable to the Secretary of State for the Colonies, but rather to the colonial governor or administrator.

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Local government is described as grassroots government because it is the government that is closest to the people. Local governments are responsible for governing smaller areas within a country, such as towns, cities, and rural areas. They are often the first point of contact between citizens and the government, and they are responsible for providing essential services like waste management, water supply, and public transportation. Local governments are typically made up of elected officials who are chosen by the people in their respective communities. These officials are often from the same communities they serve and are therefore more familiar with the local issues and concerns of the people. Overall, local government is considered grassroots government because it is the level of government that is most connected to the people and their needs, making it an essential part of any democratic system.

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Franchise means the right to participate in an election. It is the right granted to an individual to vote in an election, which is an essential component of democracy. The franchise is a fundamental right that enables citizens to have a say in the governance of their country. It is through the exercise of the franchise that citizens can choose their representatives and hold them accountable for their actions. In many countries, the franchise is a universal right that is granted to all adult citizens, regardless of their race, gender, religion, or social status. The concept of universal suffrage, which is the extension of the franchise to all adult citizens, is an important hallmark of democratic societies.

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Delegated legislature refers to the law-making power granted by the legislature to government agencies as authorized by the legislature. In a delegated legislature system, the legislature passes laws that delegate some of its law-making powers to government agencies or bodies. These government agencies are authorized to make laws on specific issues or subjects within their area of responsibility. However, the power to make these laws is limited by the delegation of authority from the legislature. The government agencies can only make laws within the framework established by the legislature and cannot exceed their delegated powers. Therefore, is the correct answer because it describes the concept of delegated legislature accurately. is incorrect because government agencies do not have the power to make laws without authorization. is too broad and does not accurately capture the concept of delegated legislature. is incorrect because the law-making power is not transferred to the executive and judiciary arms but rather to specific government agencies. is too general and does not accurately describe the concept of delegated legislature.

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The main cause of the 1962/63 census crisis was that there was widespread inflation of the census results in many regions. In other words, many regions falsified their census figures in order to increase their political power and influence. This led to disputes and conflicts between different regions and ethnic groups, and ultimately undermined the integrity of the census as a tool for fair representation and resource allocation.

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The geographical units into which a country is divided for the purpose of conducting elections are called constituencies. A constituency is a territorial division that is designated for the purpose of electing a representative or representatives to a legislative body. The number and boundaries of constituencies in a country may be determined by factors such as population size, geographic features, and political considerations. Each constituency usually has a specific number of voters who are eligible to vote in an election. By dividing a country into constituencies, it allows for fair and equitable representation of the people in the legislative body. In many countries, constituency boundaries are reviewed and redrawn periodically to ensure that they remain current and reflective of changes in population and demographics. Overall, constituencies are an essential aspect of democratic elections and help to ensure that all citizens have a fair and equal say in their country's political processes.

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The resolution in the North Atlantic Charter of 1941 that helped to stimulate nationalist movements in West Africa was "People all over the world had the right to choose their own form of government". This resolution declared that people everywhere had the right to determine their own political future and that colonial powers should respect that right. This message inspired many people in West Africa who were under colonial rule to fight for their independence and establish their own governments. The other options do not address the issue of self-determination and the right to choose one's own form of government, and therefore, are not relevant to the question.

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The most senior official under the British colonial administration was the Governor. The Governor was appointed by the British government to oversee the administration of the colony, and had ultimate authority over all other officials in the colony. The District Officer was a lower-ranking official who was responsible for the administration of a particular district, while the Secretary for Native Affairs was responsible for overseeing the affairs of the indigenous population. The Lieutenant Governor was an official who acted as the deputy to the Governor, while the title of President was not typically used in the context of the British colonial administration.

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The concept being described in the question is the "checks and balances" system. This system is an important principle of democratic governance, and it refers to the practice of ensuring that no one branch of government (such as the executive) has too much power. The legislature, which is responsible for making laws, also has the power to review and approve (or reject) major decisions made by the executive. This helps to ensure that the executive does not act outside of its authority or in a way that is not in the best interests of the people. The term "checks and balances" is often used to describe the way in which different branches of government work together to ensure that power is balanced and that no one branch becomes too powerful.

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An essential feature of democracy is majority rule. This means that decisions are made based on the preferences of the majority of the people. In a democracy, the majority has the power to make decisions, but the rights of the minority are also protected. This is achieved through the rule of law and the protection of individual rights and freedoms. The government is accountable to the people and is elected through a fair and transparent electoral process. In summary, democracy is a system of government that ensures majority rule while protecting the rights of the minority and upholding the rule of law.

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In the Hausa pre-colonial political system, sovereignty was located in the Emir. The Emir was the supreme ruler and head of government in the Hausa city-states. He was responsible for making and enforcing laws, maintaining peace and order, and protecting his subjects. The Emir's power was absolute, but he was advised by a council of chiefs and officials, including the Waziri, Quadi, Madawaki, and Galadima. The Emir was considered a sacred and revered figure, and his authority was recognized and accepted by the people.

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Factors that determine the electoral success of a political party

1. Sound party organisation: A well-structured party with an efficient network of branches, dedicated members and effective machinery for mobilising voters is more likely to win elections.
2. Attractive manifesto and programmes: A party with a clear, realistic and appealing programme that addresses the needs and aspirations of the people gains wider support.
3. Adequate finance: Elections are expensive; a party with sufficient funds for campaigns, publicity and organisation has a great advantage.
4. Quality and popularity of candidates and leaders: Credible, competent and charismatic leaders and candidates attract voters to the party.
5. Effective campaign and publicity: Good use of the mass media, rallies and door-to-door canvassing to reach and persuade the electorate boosts a party's chances.
6. Past record/performance: A ruling party's achievements in office, or a new party's promise of better governance, influences how people vote.
7. Wide membership and national spread: A party that cuts across ethnic, religious and regional lines commands broader support.
8. Support of interest groups: The backing of trade unions, professional bodies, religious and ethnic associations enhances a party's electoral fortunes.
9. A free and fair electoral system: An impartial electoral body and a level playing field allow a genuinely popular party to translate its support into victory.

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(a) The political concept of legitimacy

Legitimacy is the quality of being lawful, rightful and generally accepted. In politics it refers to the popular acceptance and recognition by the people of the right of a government or ruler to hold and exercise political power. A government is legitimate when it comes to power in accordance with the accepted rules and constitution of the state and is willingly obeyed by the citizens. Legitimacy is therefore closely linked to consent, acceptance and the moral right to rule.

(b) Factors that sustain legitimacy in a state

1. Constitutionality: A government that acquired and exercises power in accordance with the constitution and due process retains the acceptance of the people.
2. Free and fair elections: Where leaders emerge through genuine, periodic and credible elections, the people accept their authority as rightful.
3. Good governance and performance: A government that provides security, welfare and social amenities and improves the well-being of the people wins and keeps their loyalty.
4. Rule of law and respect for rights: Respect for the law, human rights and justice strengthens the people's confidence in and acceptance of the government.
5. Popular participation: Allowing citizens to take part in government through voting, free association and expression sustains their sense of ownership and acceptance.
6. Accountability and transparency: An honest, open and accountable government free from corruption maintains public trust.
7. Political stability and continuity: A stable, orderly succession of governments according to accepted rules preserves legitimacy.
8. Effective political socialisation: Through education, the media and civic training, citizens are taught to accept and support the political system.

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Constitutional evolution of federalism in Nigeria up to 1954

1. Amalgamation of 1914: Federalism in Nigeria has its distant roots in the amalgamation of the Northern and Southern Protectorates by Lord Lugard in 1914, which brought different peoples under one government while still administering the North and South somewhat separately.
2. The Clifford Constitution (1922): It introduced the elective principle and a Legislative Council for the Colony and the South, but the North was still governed separately, keeping alive the North-South divide within one country.
3. The Richards Constitution (1946): This is regarded as the real beginning of Nigerian federalism. Governor Sir Arthur Richards divided Nigeria into three regions - Northern, Western and Eastern - each with a Regional (Advisory) House, while retaining a central Legislative Council. It brought the North into a common legislature and laid the foundation of regionalism.
4. The Macpherson Constitution (1951): Drawn up after wide consultation, it strengthened the regions by giving each a House of Assembly with legislative powers and Regional Executive Councils, and provided a central government. It moved Nigeria further towards a federal structure, though disagreements over the powers of the centre and the regions soon exposed its weaknesses (as seen in the 1953 self-government motion crisis).
5. The Lyttelton Constitution (1954): This constitution formally and clearly established Nigeria as a federation. It divided powers between the central government and the three regions through an Exclusive List (central), a Concurrent List (both) and residual powers (regions). Lagos became the Federal Territory, and the regions were given greater autonomy, with regional premiers and public services. It is therefore regarded as the true foundation of Nigerian federalism.

Thus, from the amalgamation of 1914 through the Richards and Macpherson Constitutions, federalism gradually took shape, culminating in the fully federal Lyttelton Constitution of 1954.

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Why the pre-colonial government in Yorubaland can be described as democratic

Although the Oba (king) was the head of government, his powers were checked and the people participated in governance. The following features show its democratic character:

1. The Oba was not an absolute ruler: The Oba ruled with, and was checked by, a council of chiefs. He could not take major decisions alone, which prevented tyranny.
2. The Oyo Mesi (council of kingmakers): This powerful council of seven chiefs, headed by the Bashorun, selected the Oba and could check his excesses, thereby limiting royal power.
3. Checks and balances: The Oyo Mesi checked the Alaafin, while the Ogboni cult (Osugbo) checked the Oyo Mesi, creating a system of balance among the organs of government.
4. Power to remove a bad ruler: If the Oba became tyrannical, the Oyo Mesi could reject him; by presenting him with an empty calabash or parrot's egg, he was called upon to "go to sleep" (commit suicide). This is comparable to a vote of no confidence.
5. Consultation and consensus: Decisions were reached through discussion, consultation and consensus among the Oba, the chiefs and the elders, rather than by the will of one man.
6. Representation of interests: Various groups - age-grades, guilds, town chiefs, market women (through the Iyalode) - were represented and had a voice in the affairs of the community.
7. Public participation and accountability: Rulers were accountable to the people through the chiefs and councils, and the interests and welfare of the people were considered.
8. Rule of law and respect for custom: Government was carried on according to established customs, traditions and taboos which even the Oba had to respect.

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Problems facing the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)

1. Language and colonial differences. The division into Anglophone, Francophone and Lusophone states creates communication barriers and divergent loyalties, especially the strong ties of French-speaking members to France.
2. Multiple and overlapping currencies. The absence of a single convertible currency (the CFA franc versus national currencies) hampers trade and payments among members.
3. Political instability. Frequent coups, civil wars and insurgencies disrupt cooperation and force the community to divert resources to peacekeeping (for example ECOMOG in Liberia and Sierra Leone).
4. Similar, competing economies. Most members export the same primary products and import manufactures, so they compete rather than complement one another, limiting intra-regional trade.
5. Poor infrastructure. Inadequate roads, railways, ports and telecommunications linking member states obstruct the free movement of goods and persons.
6. Inadequate funding and unpaid dues. Members often default on their financial contributions, starving the Secretariat and its programmes of funds.
7. Smuggling and protectionism. Some states protect local industries and revenue by restricting the free-trade and free-movement protocols, encouraging smuggling.
8. Fear of Nigerian dominance. Nigeria's size and economic weight make smaller members wary of domination, breeding suspicion and reluctance to integrate fully.
9. Loyalty to external bodies. Continued membership of the Franc Zone and preferential ties to the EU dilute commitment to ECOWAS.

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Main changes introduced by the 1963 Republican Constitution of Nigeria

1. Nigeria became a Republic. The country cut its last constitutional link with the British Crown; the Queen ceased to be Head of State.
2. Office of President created. A ceremonial President replaced the Governor-General as Head of State. Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe became the first President.
3. The President replaced the Queen as source of authority. Executive acts, appointments and assent to bills were now done in the name of the President rather than the Crown.
4. Judicial appeals to the Privy Council abolished. The Supreme Court of Nigeria became the highest and final court of appeal, ending appeals to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London.
5. Oath of allegiance changed. Loyalty was now sworn to the Republic of Nigeria and its constitution instead of to the British monarch.
6. Retention of the parliamentary and federal framework. The federal structure of Regions, the parliamentary system with a Prime Minister as head of government, and the bicameral legislature inherited from the 1960 Constitution were retained.
7. Creation of the Mid-West Region (1963). A fourth region was carved out of the Western Region, altering the regional map.
8. Rigid amendment procedure kept. Alterations to entrenched clauses still required special majorities of the federal and regional legislatures.

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Difficulties African states face in implementing the principles of Non-Alignment

The Non-Aligned Movement urged newly independent states to avoid taking sides in the Cold War rivalry between the Western (capitalist) and Eastern (communist) blocs and to pursue an independent foreign policy. Many African countries found this ideal hard to practise for the following reasons:

1. Economic dependence on the former colonial powers. Trade, aid, loans and technical assistance tied African states to Western economies, forcing them to align their policies with their creditors rather than remaining neutral.
2. Military and defence agreements. Defence pacts, arms supplies and the presence of foreign military bases obliged some states to lean towards the bloc that armed and protected them.
3. Ideological attachment. Some leaders openly adopted either capitalist or Marxist-socialist ideologies, which pulled them firmly into one Cold War camp and away from genuine neutrality.
4. Superpower pressure and interference. The USA and USSR used aid, propaganda, subversion and support for rival factions to draw African states to their side, making true non-alignment risky.
5. Poverty and the search for development capital. Desperate for finance to develop, states accepted conditions attached to aid, sacrificing an independent stance for economic survival.
6. Internal political instability. Coups, civil wars and factional struggles made rival groups seek external backers, dragging the whole country into bloc politics.
7. Weak, inexperienced diplomacy. Many young states lacked the trained diplomats, resources and unity of purpose needed to hold a firm independent line at international fora.
8. Membership of blocs dominated by the powers. Ties such as the Commonwealth and the Francophone community committed members to positions consistent with those blocs.

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Importance of political neutrality of the Civil Service

1. To ensure continuity in administration: Governments change but the civil service remains. Neutrality enables civil servants to serve any government that comes to power, ensuring stability and continuity of administration.
2. To give loyal and impartial service to every government: A neutral civil service serves the government of the day faithfully, regardless of the party in power, and implements its policies without bias.
3. To maintain professionalism and merit: Neutrality keeps the service professional, so that appointments and promotions are based on merit rather than political patronage.
4. To ensure fairness and equal treatment of citizens: A non-partisan civil service treats all citizens equally in the delivery of public services, irrespective of their political affiliation.
5. To give honest and objective advice: Politically neutral officials can give the government frank, expert and unbiased advice without fear of favour.
6. To preserve public confidence: Impartiality wins and keeps the trust of the public in the fairness and integrity of the administration.
7. To avoid instability and victimisation: If civil servants were partisan, a change of government could lead to mass dismissals, disorder and inefficiency.
8. To uphold the rule of law: A neutral service administers the laws and policies faithfully and consistently, upholding justice and good governance.

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Reasons for the adoption of a bicameral legislature by some countries

1. Prevention of hasty legislation: The existence of two chambers ensures that bills are debated twice, allowing errors to be corrected and preventing rash or ill-considered laws.
2. Federal representation: In federal states, the second chamber (e.g. the Senate) gives equal representation to the component units regardless of size, protecting the interests of the smaller states.
3. Checks and balances within the legislature: The two houses check each other, guarding against the abuse of legislative power and the tyranny of a single all-powerful chamber.
4. Wider and better representation: Two chambers allow for the representation of different interests, groups and sections of society, giving a broader base to the legislature.
5. Revising role of the second chamber: The upper house acts as a revising body, giving a second, more careful look at legislation passed by the lower house.
6. Reduction of workload: The volume of legislative work is shared between the two houses, making law-making more thorough.
7. Protection of minority interests: The second chamber can serve as a forum to protect the interests of minorities and special groups.
8. Room for experience and expertise: The upper house can accommodate experienced elder statesmen and experts whose wisdom improves the quality of legislation.