WAEC SSCE - Geography - 1993

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Family planning is a measure aimed at controlling world population growth. Family planning refers to the use of contraception methods to regulate the number and spacing of children born to couples or individuals. It allows individuals to plan and make decisions about their reproductive health, which in turn can help to reduce population growth rates. By preventing unintended pregnancies, family planning can help to reduce maternal and infant mortality, improve maternal and child health, and increase economic and social development. Therefore, of the given options, family planning is the most appropriate measure aimed at controlling world population growth.

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The location of the iron and steel industry at Ajaokuta in Nigeria is best explained by the presence of iron ore at Itakpe and coal at Orukpa and Okaba. The iron ore deposit at Itakpe is the major raw material needed for the production of iron and steel, while coal is an essential energy source in the production process. The proximity of the coal deposits to Ajaokuta helps to minimize transportation costs and ensures a steady supply of coal to the industry. The presence of limestone at Ewekoro, although important for the cement industry, is not directly relevant to the production of iron and steel. Similarly, while the river port at Lokoja provides transportation access, it is not a significant factor in the location of the industry. Therefore, the answer is (b) l and lV only.

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The geographical region of Nigeria that covers one-fifth of the country and has a generally flat surface dotted with granitic hills is the North-Central highlands. This region is located in the central part of Nigeria and covers states such as Plateau, Niger, Kwara, Benue, Nasarawa, and Kogi. The region is characterized by a plateau that rises over 1,200 meters above sea level, which is dotted with granitic hills, including the famous Jos Plateau. The region is known for its rich agricultural potential and diverse mineral resources, including tin, columbite, and iron ore.

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The major problem facing the utilization of human resources in West Africa is unemployment. The region has a high population growth rate, and the economy has not been able to keep up with the demand for jobs. As a result, many people in West Africa are unable to find employment, particularly among the youth population. The lack of employment opportunities has contributed to poverty and social problems in the region, such as crime and unrest. Moreover, the high unemployment rate has led to emigration as many young people seek opportunities abroad. This, in turn, has a negative impact on the development of the region, as the loss of skilled and educated workers hinders economic growth. Overall, addressing the issue of unemployment is critical for the effective utilization of human resources in West Africa.

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The measure aimed at controlling world population growth is family planning. Family planning involves methods used to regulate the number and spacing of children a family has through contraception, sterilization, and other reproductive health services. This helps individuals and families to make informed decisions about their reproductive health and reduce unintended pregnancies. By having fewer children, the overall population growth rate can be slowed down, which can have positive impacts on issues such as food security, health, and environmental sustainability.

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The country located within the Horn of Africa is Djibouti. The Horn of Africa is a peninsula in the eastern region of the continent that includes Djibouti, Somalia, Ethiopia, and Eritrea. Djibouti is a small country located in the northeastern part of Africa and it shares borders with Eritrea to the north, Ethiopia to the west and south, and Somalia to the southeast.

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The largest settlement type among the options provided is a megalopolis. A megalopolis is a region that consists of several closely situated metropolitan areas that have grown and merged together over time. These areas are densely populated and often have extensive transportation and communication networks that connect them. In simpler terms, a megalopolis is a group of cities that have become so big that they have merged into one continuous urban area. This can occur due to population growth, urban expansion, or the merging of smaller towns and cities. Examples of megalopolises around the world include the Northeast megalopolis in the United States, the Pearl River Delta megalopolis in China, and the Taiheiyō Belt megalopolis in Japan. In comparison, an agglomeration refers to a group of towns and cities that are located close to each other and have grown together to form an urban area. A conurbation is similar to an agglomeration but typically includes more densely populated urban areas. A city is a large and permanent human settlement with a well-developed system of infrastructure and governance. Finally, a town is a smaller human settlement than a city with a less developed infrastructure and governance system.

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Agriculture engages the largest percentage of human resources in Africa. Agriculture involves growing crops and raising animals for food, and it is the backbone of many African economies. In Africa, the majority of people live in rural areas and depend on agriculture for their livelihoods. Many African farmers still use traditional methods, such as hand tools and animal power, to cultivate their land. Agriculture is also important for food security in Africa. With a growing population, there is a need to produce more food to meet the increasing demand. However, agriculture in Africa faces many challenges, including climate change, lack of infrastructure, and limited access to finance and technology. Overall, agriculture is a crucial sector in Africa, employing a large percentage of the population and contributing significantly to the economy.

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(a) Four components of the ecosystem:

• Producers (autotrophs): green plants that make food by photosynthesis.
• Consumers (heterotrophs): animals that feed on plants or other animals (herbivores, carnivores, omnivores).
• Decomposers: bacteria and fungi that break down dead organic matter.
• Abiotic (non-living) components: the physical environment, i.e. soil, water, air, sunlight and minerals.

(b) How the carbon cycle shows the interdependence of the components:

• Producers take in carbon dioxide from the air and, using sunlight, convert it during photosynthesis into carbohydrates, locking carbon into plant tissue.
• Consumers depend on producers: when animals eat plants (and other animals), the carbon passes along the food chain from one feeding level to the next.
• Respiration by both plants and animals releases carbon dioxide back into the air, returning carbon to the atmosphere.
• Decomposers break down dead plants and animals and their waste, releasing carbon dioxide (and enriching the soil), so carbon is recycled back to the atmosphere and to producers.
• The combustion of wood and fossil fuels also returns carbon to the air.

Thus carbon flows continuously between the abiotic environment, producers, consumers and decomposers, showing that each component depends on the others: producers supply food and remove \(\text{CO}_2\), consumers pass energy along, and decomposers and respiration return carbon so the cycle can continue.

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(a) Two methods of farming as adopted in Nigeria (any two explained)

• (i) Mixed farming: the growing of crops and the rearing of livestock together on the same farm. The animals provide manure to fertilise the crops, and crop residues feed the animals, giving the farmer a steady income from both.
• (ii) Intensive farming: the cultivation of a small piece of land with heavy inputs of labour, fertiliser and improved seeds to obtain a high yield per unit area. It is common around densely settled areas and market gardens near towns.
• (iii) Plantation agriculture: the large-scale cultivation of a single cash crop (such as oil palm, rubber, cocoa or sugar cane) on a big, well-managed estate for sale and export, using scientific methods and hired labour.

(b) Three problems facing agriculture in Nigeria

• Use of crude, traditional tools and low level of mechanisation.
• Poor storage and processing facilities leading to heavy post-harvest losses.
• Inadequate capital and credit for farmers.
• Land tenure problems that limit large-scale farming.
• Pests, diseases and unreliable rainfall/drought.

(c) Ways these problems are being solved

• Provision of agricultural loans and credit through banks and government schemes.
• Supply of tractors, improved seeds, fertilisers and pesticides to farmers.
• Construction of dams and irrigation for dry-season farming.
• Building of silos and processing plants to reduce losses.
• Agricultural research and extension services to educate farmers, and land reform to ease access to land.

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(a) Sketch map of Africa

Key to the sketch map

1. A: Congo Basin, an area receiving rainfall throughout the year.
2. B: Sudan savanna belt, an area receiving rainfall in summer only.
3. Warm current: Mozambique Current, flowing southwards along the south-east coast of Africa.
4. Cold current: Benguela Current, flowing northwards along the south-west coast of Africa.

(b)(i) Natural vegetation

Area	Type of natural vegetation
Congo Basin, rainfall throughout the year	Equatorial or tropical rain forest
Sudan savanna belt, summer rainfall	Savanna grassland

(b)(ii) Effect of rainfall on the vegetation

The Congo Basin receives heavy rainfall continuously throughout the year. There is no pronounced dry season, so moisture is available at all times. This supports a dense evergreen forest of tall broad-leaved trees arranged in layers, with a closed canopy.

In the Sudan savanna, rainfall is confined mainly to the summer months and is followed by a long dry season. The prolonged dry period prevents the growth of dense forest. Grasses predominate, while the scattered trees are drought-resistant and usually deciduous, shedding their leaves during the dry season to reduce water loss.

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(a) Four reasons why countries engage in world trade

• Uneven distribution of resources: No country has all it needs, so nations exchange what they have in surplus for what they lack.
• Differences in climate and relief: These allow different countries to produce different crops and goods, encouraging exchange (for example, temperate wheat for tropical cocoa).
• Differences in level of technology: Industrial nations sell manufactured goods to less-developed nations in exchange for raw materials.
• To earn foreign exchange: Countries export goods to earn money for development.
• Comparative cost advantage: Countries specialise in what they can produce most cheaply and import the rest.

(b) How these reasons have affected the volume of trade between Nigeria and her neighbours

• Nigeria and her neighbours (Niger, Chad, Benin, Cameroon) have similar climate and produce similar goods, so there is little to exchange, keeping the volume of trade low.
• All are developing economies exporting raw materials rather than manufactured goods, so they compete rather than complement one another.
• Where products differ (Nigerian manufactured/petroleum goods against livestock and grains from the Sahel neighbours), a modest but real cross-border trade exists.
• Weak transport links and different currencies further limit the volume of trade.

(c)(i) Two sea routes through which Nigeria trades

• The route across the Atlantic to Western Europe (via the Gulf of Guinea to ports in the United Kingdom and mainland Europe).
• The route across the Atlantic to North America (to the United States).

(ii) One export commodity through each route

• Route to Western Europe: crude petroleum (also cocoa).
• Route to North America: crude petroleum.

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(a) Three achievements of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)

• Introduction of the ECOWAS travel certificate/passport and removal of visa requirements, allowing free movement of member citizens within the region.
• Reduction and removal of tariffs on many goods through a trade liberalisation scheme, boosting inter-state trade.
• Establishment of a peace-keeping force (ECOMOG) that helped restore peace in member states such as Liberia and Sierra Leone.
• Cooperation in projects on roads, telecommunications and energy linking member states.

(b) Five problems facing ECOWAS

• Different official languages (English, French, Portuguese) hinder communication and unity.
• Similarity of products: members produce and export similar raw materials, so there is little to trade among them.
• Different currencies and lack of a common currency complicate trade and payments.
• Poor transport and communication links between member countries.
• Political instability, coups and border disputes among members.
• Loyalty to former colonial powers and outside trade partners weakens commitment to the community.

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(a) What is soil?

Soil is the uppermost loose layer of the earth’s crust in which plants grow. It is made up of weathered rock particles (mineral matter), humus or organic matter, water, air and living organisms. It provides plants with support, water and nutrients.

(b) Process of soil formation

Soil formation is the gradual development of soil from parent rock and organic materials. The main process involved is weathering, together with the addition and decomposition of organic matter. Weathering is the breaking down of rocks into small particles by physical, chemical and biological agents.

The processes of weathering involved in soil formation are:

(i) Physical weathering:

This is the breaking down of rocks into smaller pieces without changing their chemical composition. It is caused by agents such as heating and cooling, running water, wind, ice, pressure and abrasion.

(ii) Chemical weathering:

This is the decomposition or breakdown of rocks through chemical changes in their minerals. It is caused by water, oxygen, carbon dioxide and weak acids. Chemical processes include solution, oxidation, carbonation, hydrolysis and hydration.

(iii) Biological weathering:

This is the breakdown of rocks by living organisms. Plant roots grow into cracks in rocks, while burrowing animals, earthworms, rodents and human activities help to break and loosen rock materials. Micro-organisms also decompose dead plants and animals to form humus.

As weathered rock particles mix with humus, water, air and living organisms over a long period, soil develops. Rainwater may wash fine particles and dissolved minerals from the upper layer to lower layers, leading to the formation of soil horizons.

(c) Soil profile

A soil profile is a vertical section or cut through the soil showing the arrangement of its different layers. These layers are called soil horizons. A typical well-developed soil profile has the following main horizons:

A Horizon (Topsoil):

This is the uppermost layer of soil. It is dark in colour because it contains humus formed from decomposed plant and animal remains. It contains many plant roots, insects, earthworms and micro-organisms. It is rich in nutrients and is the main layer in which crops grow. Fine clay particles and soluble minerals may be washed downward from this layer; therefore, it is also called the zone of leaching or eluviation.

B Horizon (Subsoil):

This is the layer below the A horizon. It contains less humus and fewer living organisms than the topsoil. Clay particles, iron compounds and minerals washed down from the A horizon accumulate here. It is therefore called the zone of accumulation or illuviation. It is usually lighter in colour than the A horizon and is relatively compact.

C Horizon (Parent-material horizon):

This layer consists mainly of partly weathered rock fragments and weathered debris. It contains little humus and few organisms. It is the source of the parent material from which the soil develops.

R Horizon (Bedrock):

This is the hard, solid and unweathered rock beneath the C horizon. It is the original parent rock from which the overlying soil materials are formed.

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None

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(a) Four factors that have encouraged the concentration of industries in the Lagos area

• Large market and population: Lagos is the most populous urban area in Nigeria, providing a big ready market for manufactured goods.
• Good port facilities: the harbours at Apapa and Tin Can Island ease the import of raw materials and machinery and the export of finished goods.
• Good transport network: Lagos is the hub of roads, railway and an international airport, linking it to the rest of the country and the world.
• Availability of labour: a large pool of both skilled and unskilled workers is present because of heavy migration to the city.
• Availability of capital and services: banks, insurance and head offices concentrate there, providing finance and business services; electricity and water supply are also relatively better.

(b) Significance of the concentration to the inhabitants

• Provision of employment and steady income for many people.
• Availability of a wide range of manufactured goods to buy locally.
• Growth of allied businesses and services (transport, trading, repairs), spreading wealth.
• Improvement of infrastructure such as roads, power and water in the area.
• However it also brings overcrowding, pollution and high cost of living, which the inhabitants must cope with.

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(a) Sketch map of Africa

Key locations shown: Cape Verde, Cape of Good Hope, Rivers Nile, Niger and Orange, the East African Rift Valley, the Atlas Mountains in the north and the Drakensberg Mountains in the south.

(b) Economic importance of the highlands of Africa

1. Highlands force moist winds to rise and cool, causing relief rainfall. This supports farming, forests and water supply.
2. They are sources of important rivers, since many rivers rise in highland areas and provide water for irrigation, homes and industries.
3. Many highland areas contain valuable mineral deposits, for example gold, copper, diamonds and other ores, which provide employment and export revenue.

(c) Importance of African rivers

1. They are used for the generation of hydro-electric power, especially where rapids and waterfalls occur.
2. They supply water for domestic uses, industries and irrigation.
3. They support fishing and provide fish as food, employment and income.

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(a) Four ways physical factors may hinder the development of road transportation (with examples):

• Rugged relief (mountains and steep slopes): highlands make road construction difficult and costly, requiring bends, cuttings and bridges, e.g. the Jos Plateau and the Cameroon Highlands.
• Swamps, marshes and flood plains: waterlogged, soft ground is hard to build on and roads are easily flooded, e.g. the Niger Delta mangrove swamps.
• Rivers and lakes: many wide rivers require expensive bridges or ferries and interrupt road routes, e.g. crossings over the Niger and Benue.
• Dense forest and adverse climate: thick tropical rainforest is difficult and expensive to clear, while heavy rainfall washes away and erodes roads (gullying), e.g. in the equatorial forest belt. (Deserts with shifting sand are also acceptable.)

(b) Four factors responsible for the poor railway network in tropical African countries:

• Shortage of capital: railways are very expensive to build and maintain, and poor countries cannot easily finance them.
• Difficult physical conditions: mountains, rivers, swamps and dense forest raise construction costs and limit routes.
• Colonial pattern of construction: existing lines were built mainly to link mines and cash-crop areas to the coastal ports for export, not to connect the interior, so the network is thin and unconnected.
• Low level of economic development and small traffic: sparse population, low industrial output and competition from road transport give too little freight and passenger traffic to justify new lines, and there is a shortage of skilled manpower and technology for maintenance.

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(a) Relief of the ocean floor

(b) Characteristics of two features

Continental shelf

• It is the shallow, submerged extension of the continental landmass from the coast to the shelf break.
• It has a broad and gentle seaward slope and is usually less than about 200 m deep.
• It is covered mainly by sediments and is affected by wave action, erosion and deposition.
• Its shallow, well-lit water supports abundant plankton and marine life.

Ocean deep

• Ocean deeps are long, narrow and very deep depressions or trenches in the ocean floor.
• They form the deepest parts of the oceans, commonly exceeding 6,000 m in depth.
• They commonly occur near island arcs or continental margins and are associated with earth movements, earthquakes and volcanic activity.
• Fine deposits such as clay and oozes may accumulate on their floors.

(c) Economic importance of continental shelves

• They are important fishing grounds because sunlight penetrates the shallow water, encouraging the growth of plankton, which is food for fish.
• They provide employment and income in fishing, fish processing, boat building and related industries.
• They contain valuable mineral and energy resources, especially offshore petroleum and natural gas.
• They provide suitable locations for the development of ports, harbours and other coastal facilities.
• Sand, gravel and shells may be obtained from shelf deposits for construction and industrial uses.

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(a) Sketch map of West Africa

Key to the map

1. Home areas of ethnic groups:
   • Ashanti: south-central Ghana, around Kumasi.
   • Wolof: western Senegal, especially the Senegal River and Dakar hinterland.
   • Mandingo: the Upper Niger region, mainly Guinea and south-western Mali.
2. Areas with population density above 100 persons per km²:
   • South-eastern Nigeria, especially the Igbo heartland.
   • Southern Ghana, especially the Accra-Kumasi-coastal belt.
3. Areas with population density below 5 persons per km²:
   • Northern Mauritania.
   • Northern Mali and northern Niger, within the Sahara Desert.

(b) Factors aiding variation in population density in West Africa

1. Historical factors: Ancient towns such as Kano, Katsina and Timbuktu grew as centres of trans-Saharan trade. They attracted traders, craftsmen and administrators and consequently retained relatively large populations. Areas that formed capitals of old empires or enjoyed protection from warfare also became more densely settled. Conversely, slave raiding, wars and insecurity caused people to leave some areas, reducing their population density.
2. Agriculture: Fertile soils, reliable rainfall and good water supply encourage intensive farming and support many people. For example, parts of eastern Nigeria and the Ashanti area of Ghana have relatively high densities because food crops and cash crops can be grown successfully. Dry areas with infertile soils, sparse vegetation and unreliable rainfall, especially in the Sahara and Sahel, support little farming and therefore have sparse population.
3. Mining: Mineral deposits attract miners, investors and supporting services. Employment in gold-mining areas of Ghana, tin-mining areas of the Jos Plateau and other mineral fields attracts migrants. Mining settlements grow and local population density rises.
4. Industrialisation: Industries provide employment and stimulate the growth of trade, transport, housing, schools and health services. People therefore migrate to industrial and commercial centres such as Lagos, Accra, Kano and Dakar. This concentrates population in and around such towns, while areas with few industries remain less densely populated.

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Contrast between the Equatorial climate and the Tundra climate

In summary, the Equatorial climate is hot, wet and uniform with luxuriant forest, while the Tundra climate is cold, dry and highly seasonal with only low, hardy vegetation.

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(a) Three ways light industries differ from heavy industries

(b) Four reasons why light industries are more prevalent than heavy industries in Tropical Africa

• Shortage of capital: Light industries need less money to establish, which suits the limited local capital.
• Low level of technology and skilled manpower: Light industries use simpler machinery and less specialised labour.
• Availability of raw materials: Abundant agricultural raw materials favour agro-based light industries (food, textiles, beverages).
• Small and low-income market: The market mainly demands consumer goods, not heavy machinery, so light industries thrive.
• Inadequate power supply and infrastructure: Heavy industries need reliable, large-scale power and transport that many countries lack.

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(a) Difference between urban and rural settlements:

(b) Four factors responsible for the increase in size of urban settlements:

• Rural-urban migration: people move to towns in search of jobs, higher wages and a better life.
• Industrialisation and commerce: the growth of factories, businesses and services attracts and holds a large workforce.
• Availability of social amenities: good schools, hospitals, water, electricity and entertainment pull people into towns.
• Natural increase: high birth rate over death rate within the town, plus administrative, educational and transport functions that draw more people.

(c) Four problems associated with such growth:

• Overcrowding and housing shortage, leading to the growth of slums.
• Unemployment and crime as jobs fail to match the rising population.
• Traffic congestion and pressure on transport.
• Pressure on services and environmental problems: strained water, power, schools and hospitals, poor sanitation, waste disposal and pollution.

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Reasons for any three of the following:

(a) Importance of fruit farming in the Mediterranean lands

• The hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters suit citrus, grapes, olives and figs.
• Long hours of bright sunshine ripen and sweeten the fruits.
• Deep-rooted fruit trees can reach underground water during the dry summer.
• Nearby industrial markets in Europe and good transport encourage commercial fruit growing.

(b) Predominance of lumbering in the Zaire basin

• The basin has a vast tropical rain forest with valuable hardwood trees (mahogany, ebony).
• Hot, wet equatorial climate gives continuous tree growth and quick regeneration.
• The many navigable rivers (Zaire and tributaries) provide cheap transport of logs.
• Low population and little farming leave the forest largely intact for exploitation.

(c) Declining importance of bush fallowing in West Africa

• Rapid population growth has increased pressure on land, so there is no longer enough land to leave fallow.
• Fallow periods have shortened, reducing soil recovery, so farmers turn to fertilisers and permanent cultivation.
• Introduction of modern farming (irrigation, mechanisation, cash crops) replaces the old shifting system.
• Urbanisation and land shortage make continuous cultivation necessary.

(d) Importance of plantation agriculture in East Africa

• The cool, fertile highlands with reliable rainfall suit cash crops such as tea, coffee and sisal.
• Large estates and available capital (partly from former colonial settlers) support big plantations.
• Cheap and abundant labour is available.
• Good demand and export outlets earn valuable foreign exchange.

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None

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(a) Distinction between internal trade and international trade

Internal (domestic) trade is the buying and selling of goods and services within the borders of one country, using one currency and free of customs duties. International trade is the exchange of goods and services between different countries, involving different currencies, foreign exchange, customs duties and international agreements.

(b) Four commodities of internal trade in Nigeria

• From the north: cattle (beef), and onions/grains such as millet and beans.
• From the south: palm oil, and kola nut (also plantain/yam and fish).

(c) Factors that promote trade between northern and southern Nigeria

• Difference in climate and vegetation gives the two regions different products, so they exchange what each lacks.
• Good transport links (roads and railways) connect north and south, easing the movement of goods.
• A common currency and common government remove barriers to exchange.
• Large population and demand create ready markets in both regions.
• Specialisation/division of labour between farming, herding and manufacturing zones.

(d) Limitations to internal trade in Nigeria

• Poor and inadequate transport in some areas, raising costs.
• Lack of storage and processing facilities, so perishable goods spoil.
• Insecurity and multiple illegal road tolls/checkpoints.
• Similarity of products in some areas reduces exchange.
• Fluctuating prices and inadequate market information.

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None

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(a) Four ways lines of latitude differ from lines of longitude:

(Also acceptable: the spacing between parallels is roughly constant, while meridians are farthest apart at the Equator; latitude determines climate/temperature zones, longitude determines local time.)

(b) Time calculation:

Town A is at long \(75^{\circ}\text{W}\), Town B at long \(120^{\circ}\text{E}\). They are on opposite sides of the Prime Meridian, so add the longitudes:

\[ \text{Longitude difference} = 75^{\circ} + 120^{\circ} = 195^{\circ} \]

The Earth turns \(15^{\circ}\) in \(1\) hour, i.e. \(1^{\circ} = 4\) minutes:

\[ \text{Time difference} = 195 \times 4 = 780\text{ minutes} = 13\text{ hours} \]

Town B is east of Town A, so its time is ahead. Add 13 hours to A's time:

\[ 5:00\text{ p.m. Friday} + 13\text{ hours} = 6:00\text{ a.m. Saturday} \]

Time at Town B = 6:00 a.m. on Saturday.

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(a) Account for the rapid growth of world population in the last two decades:

• Fall in the death rate due to improved medical care, vaccination, control of epidemics and better sanitation, so more people survive and live longer.
• High birth rate in many developing countries, where large families are still favoured and there is early marriage.
• Improved food supply and nutrition from better farming (irrigation, fertilisers, improved seeds), reducing famine and death from hunger.
• Better public health, clean water supply and hygiene, which cut infant mortality so more children survive to adulthood.
• Longer life expectancy and, in places, immigration, all adding to numbers.

(b) Three problems arising from this rapid growth:

• Pressure on food supply: population outstrips food production, causing shortages and malnutrition.
• Unemployment and poverty: too many people compete for too few jobs, lowering living standards.
• Pressure on services and environment: overcrowding, housing shortages, strain on schools, hospitals and water supply, and problems such as slums, congestion and pollution/deforestation.

(c) Suggested solutions:

• Family-planning and population-education programmes to reduce the birth rate.
• Increase food production and create more jobs by expanding agriculture, industry and skills training.
• Provide and expand social services and infrastructure (housing, schools, hospitals, water) and encourage even distribution of population and planned urban development.