WAEC SSCE - Government - 2018 (Essay)

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(a) Meaning of proto-nationalism

Proto-nationalism refers to the earliest, pre-political phase of nationalist feeling in colonial West Africa, roughly before the First World War. It was the mild, moderate agitation by an educated elite who did not demand independence or the overthrow of colonial rule, but only sought reforms, fair treatment, greater African participation in the colonial administration, and the protection of African rights within the colonial system.

(b) Four features of proto-nationalism

1. It was moderate and loyalist: Its leaders accepted colonial rule and only asked for reforms, not for self-government or independence.
2. It was elitist: It was led by a small group of educated professionals (lawyers, doctors, clergy, journalists) and did not involve the ordinary masses.
3. It was reformist in method: It used peaceful, constitutional means such as petitions, newspapers, delegations and resolutions rather than mass action or violence.
4. It was largely urban and cultural: It was centred in the coastal towns and concerned with cultural pride, protection of land and defence of African rights rather than mass mobilisation.

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(a) Three methods of acquiring citizenship

1. Citizenship by birth: A person automatically becomes a citizen because he was born within the country, or born of parents or grandparents who are citizens of that country.
2. Citizenship by descent: A person born outside the country acquires citizenship because one or both of his parents (or grandparents) are citizens of that country.
3. Citizenship by naturalisation: A foreigner (alien) who has lived lawfully in a country for the period fixed by law is granted full citizenship after satisfying the required conditions and taking an oath of allegiance.

(Registration/marriage and honorary citizenship are other accepted methods.)

(b) Two conditions an alien must satisfy before becoming a citizen of another country

1. He must have resided lawfully and continuously in the country for the minimum number of years prescribed by the constitution or immigration law.
2. He must be of good character, be of full age and sound mind, be able to contribute to the development of the country, and be willing to renounce his former nationality and swear an oath of allegiance to the new state.

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Five obstacles to the implementation of ECOWAS aims and objectives

1. Language and colonial differences: The division of member states into Anglophone, Francophone and Lusophone blocs breeds mutual suspicion and hampers cooperation.
2. Continued attachment to former colonial masters: Many Francophone states remain economically and politically tied to France, which weakens their commitment to the regional body.
3. Political instability: Frequent military coups, civil wars and insecurity in member states disrupt regional programmes and divert resources into peace-keeping (e.g. ECOMOG).
4. Similar (competitive) rather than complementary economies: Most members produce and export the same primary raw materials, so there is little to trade among themselves, limiting intra-regional commerce.
5. Inadequate funding and non-payment of dues: Member states often fail to pay their financial contributions, starving the community of the funds needed to run its programmes.

(Others: poor transport and communication links, protectionist trade barriers, and lack of a strong common currency.)

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Five features of the Hausa/Fulani pre-colonial political system

1. Highly centralised system: Power was concentrated in an emirate structure headed by the Emir, unlike the more diffused Igbo system.
2. The Emir as head: The Emir was the political, administrative and spiritual head of the emirate. He was appointed by kingmakers from the ruling dynasty and enjoyed near-absolute authority.
3. Theocratic government based on Islam: The system was founded on Islamic religion and Sharia law; the Quran guided administration and justice, and the Emir was seen as protector of the faith.
4. A well-organised bureaucracy of titled officials: The Emir ruled with the help of appointed officials such as the Waziri (prime minister/adviser), Galadima (administrator), Madawaki (head of the army), Sarkin Dan Doka (police), Maaji (treasurer) and Alkali (judges).
5. An organised tax/revenue system: Taxes such as Zakat, Jangali (cattle tax), Kharaj and Jizya were collected to run the administration.
6. A judicial system based on Sharia: Justice was administered by Alkali courts applying Islamic law, with the Emir as the final court of appeal.

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(a) Definition of society

A society is a large group of people who live together in a definite geographical area, share a common culture, interact with one another and are organised under a common system of authority and rules for their collective survival and welfare. It is an organised body of persons bound together by shared values, institutions and relationships within a defined territory.

(b) Features of a society

1. A group of people (population): A society is made up of a number of human beings living together; a single individual cannot form a society.
2. A definite territory: The people occupy a particular geographical area or location that they can call their own.
3. Common culture: Members share a common way of life, including language, customs, values, beliefs, norms and traditions that bind them together.
4. Social interaction and relationships: The people relate and interact with one another continuously, cooperating and depending on one another for their needs.
5. Organisation and structure: A society has an established pattern of organisation, with institutions such as the family, government, religion and the economy that regulate the behaviour of its members.
6. A system of authority and rules: There are recognised rules, laws, norms and authority that govern conduct and maintain order among the members.
7. Common interests and goals: Members pursue shared aims and interests, such as security, welfare and continuity, that promote their collective survival.
8. Continuity and permanence: A society persists over time, outliving individual members through reproduction and the transmission of culture to new generations.

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Mechanisms to forestall military intervention in politics

1. Good and accountable governance: Civilian leaders should govern honestly, provide social amenities and manage the economy well so that the military finds no popular grievance to exploit as an excuse for a coup.
2. Free, fair and credible elections: Regular, transparent elections give power a legitimate source, removing the pretext that the government is illegitimate or imposed.
3. Strengthening of democratic institutions: Independent legislature, judiciary, electoral commission and free press should be built up to check the excesses of leaders and resolve crises constitutionally.
4. Professionalisation of the armed forces: Soldiers must be trained, well-equipped and re-orientated to be loyal to the constitution and to accept civilian supremacy over the military.
5. Improved welfare and discipline of soldiers: Good pay, allowances, housing and prompt promotion reduce discontent within the ranks that can lead to mutiny or coups.
6. Fight against corruption and injustice: Punishing corrupt officials and ensuring social justice removes the moral grievances that soldiers often cite when seizing power.
7. Civic and political education: Educating both the citizens and the military on the value of democracy and the dangers of military rule discourages support for coups.

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(a) Definition of opinion poll

An opinion poll is a method of measuring or sampling the views of a selected section of the public (a representative sample) on a political, social or economic issue, and using those sampled views to predict or represent the opinion of the whole population.

(b) Four factors that make opinion polls unreliable in West Africa

1. High level of illiteracy: Many respondents cannot properly understand the questions asked, so their answers do not reflect informed opinion.
2. Poor and inaccurate statistical/census data: Without a reliable population register, pollsters cannot draw a truly representative sample.
3. Fear and suspicion: Many people are afraid to reveal their true political views to strangers, so they give false or evasive answers.
4. Inadequate funding and poor communication/transport infrastructure: Polls are costly and large parts of the region are hard to reach, so samples are too small or biased towards easily accessible urban areas.

(Others: influence of ethnicity and religion, dishonest or biased pollsters, and volatile, easily-changing opinions.)

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(a) Definition of a constituency

A constituency is a geographical or territorial area, with a defined population, into which a country is divided for the purpose of electing a representative or representatives into a legislative body. The people living in that area are the constituents who elect and are represented by the member.

(b) Four merits of the single-member constituency

1. Close representative-constituent relationship: Because only one person represents the area, the electorate know their representative personally and can hold him directly accountable.
2. Simplicity: The voter has to choose only one candidate, so the ballot is simple and easy to understand, reducing invalid votes among a largely illiterate electorate.
3. Easy and cheap to conduct/manage: Small single-member areas are easier and less expensive to administer, and results are quickly collated.
4. It produces a stable government: The system usually gives the winning party a clear working majority in the legislature, promoting strong and stable government.

(Others: it encourages a two-party system and makes it easy for the representative to know the needs of the area.)

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Five functions of the President under the 1989 Constitution of Nigeria

The 1989 Constitution established an executive presidential system in which the President was both Head of State and Head of Government. His major functions included:

1. Chief executive: He was responsible for the day-to-day administration of the country and the execution of the laws made by the National Assembly.
2. Appointment of principal officers: He appointed ministers, ambassadors, judges of the superior courts and other top public officials, subject to confirmation by the Senate.
3. Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces: He controlled the army, navy and air force and was responsible for the defence and internal security of the nation.
4. Conduct of foreign affairs: He represented Nigeria in relations with other states, received foreign envoys, negotiated treaties and signed international agreements.
5. Legislative role (assent and veto): He signed bills passed by the National Assembly into law, could withhold assent (veto), and could issue executive orders and proclaim emergencies.

(Others: exercise of the prerogative of mercy, preparation and presentation of the national budget, and delivering the state-of-the-nation address.)

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(a) Meaning of communalism

Communalism is a pre-colonial and pre-capitalist system of social and economic organisation in which the means of production (land, forests, rivers, hunting and grazing grounds) are owned collectively by the whole community rather than by individuals. Everyone works according to ability, the products of labour are shared according to need, and there is no exploitation of one person by another because there are no private owners of the means of production and no distinct social classes.

(b) Four differences between feudalism and communalism