WAEC SSCE - Government - 1994

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In the 1979 elections in Nigeria, the total number of political parties registered was five.

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The 1979 Constitution of Nigeria attempted to address some of the issues related to Nigerian federalism by incorporating provisions that would promote a more equitable distribution of power and resources among the states. The constitution provided for the reflection of federal character in public appointments, which means that appointments to key government positions must reflect the diversity of the country's ethnic and geographic regions. It also established an equitable revenue allocation formula to address the problem of lopsided allocation of resources to the regions. Additionally, the constitution made it easier to create more states and gave the states more autonomy, making the center weaker in relation to the states. However, the constitution did not relax the stringent conditions for secession.

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The Executive is a body that formulates and implements the policies of government. The Executive is one of the three branches of government, along with the Legislature and the Judiciary. It is responsible for executing and administering the laws of the country, as well as for implementing policies and making decisions that affect the country's citizens. The head of the Executive is usually the President or Prime Minister, who is elected by the people or appointed by the Legislature, depending on the country's political system. The Executive also includes various government ministries and departments, such as the Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Education, and Ministry of Health, which are responsible for carrying out specific functions and programs of government.

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The main deliberative organ of the United Nations Organization (UNO) is the General Assembly. The General Assembly is made up of representatives from all member countries of the UNO, and it is responsible for discussing and making recommendations on matters of international concern, including issues of peace and security, economic development, and human rights. Each member country has one vote in the General Assembly, and decisions are made by a two-thirds majority vote. The General Assembly meets once a year, and additional special sessions can be called as needed.

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The Nigeria Advance Party (NAP) of the Second Republic was led by Tunji Braithwaite. Tunji Braithwaite was a prominent Nigerian lawyer, activist and politician who formed the Nigeria Advance Party (NAP) in 1978, as a platform to contest for the presidency in the 1979 elections. The party was known for its radical and populist ideals and had a significant influence on the political landscape of Nigeria at the time. Despite not winning the election, Braithwaite continued to be active in Nigerian politics until his death in 2016.

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In a democracy, sovereignty is vested in the people. This means that ultimate authority and power reside with the citizens of the country, and they have the right to participate in the governance of their country through various means, such as voting in elections and holding their elected officials accountable. In a democratic system, the government is created by and accountable to the people. The government is responsible for carrying out the will of the people and promoting their welfare. It is accountable to the people through regular elections and other mechanisms of democratic participation, such as public consultations and civic engagement. While the legislature, judges, public officials, and the head of state all play important roles in the functioning of a democratic government, they are not the ultimate source of sovereignty. Rather, they are all subject to the will and authority of the people, who have the power to elect and remove them from office if they fail to serve the public interest. Therefore, the best answer is: the people.

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Public opinion is the collective views of individuals in a society on a particular issue or matter of public interest. It can be crystallized or formed through various means, including opinion polls, referenda, plebiscites, and strikes. These methods allow individuals to express their opinions and preferences on various issues. However, military coups are not a means by which public opinion is crystallized. Military coups refer to the sudden overthrow of a government by the military, usually without the support of the public. In this situation, the military takes control of the government and may impose its own views and policies, often without the input or agreement of the public. Therefore, military coups do not reflect the crystallization of public opinion.

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The institution and processes connected with making, enforcing and reviewing of laws in any society is referred to as the Government. The government is responsible for creating laws and regulations that govern the behavior of citizens and organizations within the society. The government also enforces these laws through various agencies such as the police and judiciary, and periodically reviews and updates the laws to reflect the changing needs of society. The Constitution Drafting Committee may be involved in creating the foundational laws of the country, but the overall responsibility for the entire system of laws rests with the government. The judiciary and bar association play a role in interpreting and upholding the laws created by the government.

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Before the formation of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) in 1963, Nigeria belonged to the Monrovia Group. The Monrovia Group was a coalition of African countries that favored a more gradual approach to African unity and independence, as opposed to the more radical and immediate approach of the Casablanca Group. The Monrovia Group was formed in 1961 and included countries such as Liberia, Senegal, Guinea, Ivory Coast, and Nigeria. The group was named after Monrovia, the capital city of Liberia, where the first meeting was held. The Monrovia Group played a significant role in shaping the early history of African unity and cooperation.

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Power is the ability to get others to do what you want, while authority is the right to exercise power. Authority is transformed from power through legitimacy. Legitimacy refers to the acceptance of an individual's right to wield power or authority, based on a set of norms, rules, or beliefs. When power is exercised in accordance with these norms or rules, it becomes legitimate, and the individual holding the power is seen as having the authority to do so. For example, a government may exercise power through laws and regulations that are based on the constitution, and when the government is seen as legitimate, the power it wields becomes authority.

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The Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) is an agency of the United Nations (UN). Its purpose is to promote economic and social development in Africa by providing research and technical assistance to African governments and organizations. The ECA was established in 1958 and is headquartered in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

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Delegated legislation refers to the power given to someone other than the legislative body to create laws on their behalf. One advantage of delegated legislation is that it enables contingencies to be taken care of. In other words, it allows for laws to be made quickly and efficiently in response to changing circumstances, such as an emergency situation, without the need for full parliamentary scrutiny. This can help ensure that laws remain relevant and effective. However, it is important that there is adequate consultation and transparency in the process to prevent any abuse of power.

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The question asks for the reason that is NOT a cause of frequent military takeover of power in Nigeria. The answer, therefore, is the option that does not contribute to military intervention in Nigerian politics. Option C, "check on communist penetration of government," is the answer because communist infiltration has not been a significant factor in military coups in Nigeria. Rather, the military has typically justified their interventions as necessary to restore order, discipline, and stability in the face of perceived incompetence, corruption, and disorder in civilian government. The other options - election malpractice, corruption among top government functionaries, embezzlement of public funds, and tribalism and nepotism - have all been factors contributing to military intervention in Nigerian politics.

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The correct answer is "political socialization". Political socialization refers to the process by which individuals learn about and develop their political attitudes and values. This process can occur through various means, such as family, education, media, and peer groups. Political socialization plays a crucial role in shaping people's political beliefs and behaviors, as well as influencing their participation in the political process.

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The statement "Nigeria withdrew her membership of the UNO because the organization supported Biafra" is not correct. During the Nigerian Civil War, Nigeria did not withdraw its membership from the United Nations Organization (UNO) and the organization did not support Biafra. In fact, the UNO condemned the secession of Biafra and recognized Nigeria's sovereignty over its territory. Therefore, option E is the incorrect statement.

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Proportional representation is a system of voting that aims to give each political party representation in the assembly that is proportionate to its popular support or votes. This means that if a party gets 30% of the votes, they should get roughly 30% of the seats in the assembly. Therefore, the statement that is correct about proportional representation is that it "gives the parties seats in relation to their popular support". It is important to note that proportional representation aims to make the assembly representative of all citizens by giving smaller parties a voice in the legislature. Additionally, proportional representation does not necessarily preserve the two-party system and it is not a system that legalizes dictatorship.

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Decentralization is a common feature in federal governments. In a federal system, power is shared between the central government and the constituent units (such as states or provinces), with each level having some degree of autonomy and responsibility over specific areas of policy. This allows for decentralization of decision-making and service delivery, with more local input and responsiveness to regional needs. In contrast, unitary governments tend to have more centralized power with little to no devolution of power to regional governments.

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The subject matter of Government is the organization and administration of a system of ruling a state or a community. It involves making and enforcing laws, maintaining order and security, providing public services, and managing the economy. In essence, the subject matter of government is the exercise of political power over people within a given territory. , "political power," best describes the subject matter of government. Political power is the authority to govern a society and make decisions that affect the lives of citizens. It includes the power to tax, regulate commerce, and maintain a military. While elections, people, political parties, and cultural assimilation are all relevant to government, they do not capture the full scope of its subject matter. Elections are a means of choosing leaders who will exercise political power, people are those subject to that power, political parties are organizations that compete for political power, and cultural assimilation is a process of integrating different cultural groups into a political community. However, they are not the core subject matter of government itself. In summary, the subject matter of government is the exercise of political power over people within a given territory, making "political power," the best answer.

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The existence of the exclusive, residual, and concurrent legislative lists means that the Nigerian state is federal. This is because federalism is a system of government where power is shared between a central government and component units such as states or provinces. In Nigeria, the exclusive legislative list contains matters that only the federal government can legislate upon, the residual legislative list contains matters that only the state government can legislate upon, and the concurrent legislative list contains matters that both the federal and state governments can legislate upon. This sharing of power between the central government and component units is a defining characteristic of federalism.

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The 1954 Lyttleton Constitution marked the beginning of formal federalism in Nigeria because it outlined the division of powers between the central government and the regional governments. This means that certain responsibilities and powers were allocated to the central government while others were given to the regional governments. The creation of the posts of Governor-General at the centre and Governor in the regions, as well as the creation of a Council of Minister at the centre, were all part of the constitution's efforts to establish a federal system of government in Nigeria. This allowed for a more decentralized government structure that gave greater autonomy to the regions and allowed for a more equitable distribution of power among the various levels of government.

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The party system operated by a country is determined by the nature of competition and interaction within and between political parties. This refers to the ways in which political parties compete for power, the issues they prioritize, and how they interact with each other in the political arena. The party system may be characterized by the number of parties, the level of party discipline, the degree of voter loyalty, and the ideological differences between the parties. The type of party system may affect the functioning of democracy in a country, as it can influence the inclusiveness of political representation, the responsiveness of political leaders to the electorate, and the stability of government.

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A manifesto refers to the program of a political party. It is a public declaration of the policies, goals, and objectives that a political party intends to pursue if elected to govern a country. Manifestos are usually presented to the public during election campaigns, and they serve as a guide for voters to make informed decisions on which party to support. Manifestos outline the party's plans on various issues such as education, health, the economy, security, and foreign relations. They are essential in democratic societies as they enable citizens to hold political parties accountable for their promises.

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The French colonial policy of assimilation aimed at making their colonies an integral part of France by imposing French culture, language, and values on the colonies. However, this policy was met with resistance from the colonized people who sought to maintain their own culture and identity. As a result, the French later replaced their policy of assimilation with the policy of association, which recognized the cultural and social differences of the colonized people and allowed for a more flexible relationship between the colonizer and the colonized. Under this policy, the French allowed for the preservation of local cultures and traditions while still maintaining control over the colonies. Therefore, the answer is "Association".

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The 1953 motion that Nigeria should attain self-government in 1956 was moved by Chief Anthony Enahoro, who was then a member of the Western House of Assembly. The motion was seconded by Chief Samuel Ladoke Akintola.

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When a constitution contains complicated and long procedures for its amendments, it is said to be "rigid". A rigid constitution is one that is difficult to change or amend, requiring specific and often complicated procedures to make any modifications to it. This is done intentionally to ensure that the constitution is not easily altered by short-term political interests or temporary changes in public opinion. In contrast, a flexible constitution can be amended or changed more easily and quickly.

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Government can be described as the art of making and enforcing laws. Governments are responsible for creating laws that regulate the behavior of individuals and groups in society. They also have the power to enforce these laws and punish those who violate them. The primary function of government is to maintain law and order, and ensure the safety and welfare of its citizens. Therefore, the art of making and enforcing laws is the key function of any government.

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The main aim of pressure groups is to influence the government. Pressure groups are organizations formed by like-minded individuals who come together to influence public policies and decisions made by the government. They seek to promote a particular cause or interest, and try to bring about change by influencing the actions of those in power. Pressure groups can use a range of tactics to achieve their objectives, including lobbying, protests, and media campaigns. The ultimate goal of pressure groups is to have an impact on government policy and decision-making in order to achieve their desired outcome.

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The rule of law refers to the principle that no one, including government officials, is above the law. It implies that laws are clearly defined, publicized, and applied equally to all citizens, regardless of their social status or political power. Therefore, the option that best describes the observation of the rule of law is "wherever laws are considered to be supreme." This means that laws are the highest authority and must be obeyed by all individuals, organizations, and governments.

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Nigeria has played a prominent role in the formation and continued existence of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). ECOWAS is a regional intergovernmental organization that promotes economic integration, political cooperation, and regional security among its 15 member states in West Africa. Nigeria is one of the founding members of ECOWAS and has been instrumental in its establishment, funding, and functioning. The organization was established in 1975, and Nigeria has been a key player in shaping its policies, programs, and activities. Therefore, the answer to the question is "Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)."

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As a general rule, citizens have certain obligations and responsibilities towards their country, such as paying taxes, defending their country in times of war, and participating in the democratic process through voting. However, citizens are not typically expected to arrest and prosecute offenders themselves. This is usually the responsibility of law enforcement officials and the justice system. Similarly, while standing up during the national anthem is a sign of respect, it is not a legal obligation.

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The major innovation of the Republican Constitution of 1963 was that it abolished the Governor-General's office as the representative of the Queen. This means that the new constitution established an independent Nigerian presidency, replacing the previous system where Nigeria was still under the control of the British Monarch. The constitution also established the executive Presidential system, in which the President is both the head of state and the head of the government. This system replaced the parliamentary system in which the Prime Minister was the head of government, and the Governor-General was the head of state.

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The major reason why government sets up Public Corporations is to provide utility services to the public at minimal costs. Public Corporations are entities established by the government to provide essential goods and services to the general public, which may not be profitable for private businesses to undertake. These corporations operate in various sectors such as transportation, healthcare, energy, and education, among others. The government establishes Public Corporations to ensure that the essential services and goods are provided to the public at an affordable cost. The services may include providing electricity, water, public transportation, and healthcare, among others. The government usually subsidizes the services to ensure that they are affordable to the public. While Public Corporations may generate profits, the primary focus is not profit-making. Instead, the focus is on providing essential services to the public that may not be provided by the private sector. Therefore, the correct answer is: to provide utility services to the public at minimal costs.

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Gerrymandering is the deliberate manipulation or tampering with the boundaries of electoral constituencies, wards, or districts to benefit one political party or group over another. The purpose of gerrymandering is to achieve a disproportionate representation in the legislative body by manipulating the demographics of the electoral constituency. This can be done in several ways, such as dividing or combining existing constituencies, redrawing boundaries to include or exclude specific areas, and altering the size or shape of constituencies to influence the outcome of an election in favor of a particular political party or group.

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The traditional system of government in pre-colonial Nigeria was based on communalism. This means that the community, rather than an individual, was the primary unit of social and political organization. Decision-making was based on consensus, and everyone had a say in the affairs of the community. The traditional rulers, such as chiefs and kings, were more like representatives of the people and were expected to act in the best interest of the community. The welfare of the community as a whole was considered more important than the interests of individuals. The system was characterized by a sense of collectivism, mutual support, and cooperation.

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Public opinion refers to the collective views and attitudes of the people on various issues of national interest. It enables a government to find out what the public thinks about its activities, policies, and programs. By knowing the public opinion, the government can determine what policies or actions are necessary and appropriate to meet the needs and aspirations of the people. Public opinion also helps the government to gauge the level of support or opposition to its policies, as well as to identify areas of concern or dissatisfaction among the citizens. Therefore, the correct option is "find out what the public thinks about its activities."

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Nigeria became a federation as a result of the promulgation of the constitution of 1954. This was the Macpherson Constitution, which replaced the Richards Constitution of 1946. The new constitution introduced a federal system of government in Nigeria, which allowed for greater autonomy and power for the regions. Under the new constitution, Nigeria was divided into three regions: Northern Region, Eastern Region, and Western Region, each with its own government and legislature. The federal government was responsible for issues that affected the whole country, such as defense, foreign affairs, and monetary policy.

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The Nigeria civil war, also known as the Biafran War, was fought between 1967 and 1970. It was fought between the Nigerian government, led by General Yakubu Gowon, and the secessionist state of Biafra, which was led by Colonel Odumegwu Ojukwu. The war was fought in order to preserve the unity of Nigeria as a sovereign nation. The Biafrans had declared independence, which the Nigerian government saw as a threat to its territorial integrity. The war led to the loss of over a million lives and caused significant damage to infrastructure and the economy. Ultimately, the Biafrans surrendered and Nigeria remained a united country.

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Before the Civil Service reforms of 1988, the most prestigious and highest paid grade in the Nigerian Civil Service was the Administrative Class. This class was made up of highly qualified and experienced civil servants who held positions of responsibility and were involved in policy-making and implementation. They were responsible for the smooth running of government departments and agencies and were highly respected within the civil service and the wider society. The administrative class was seen as the backbone of the civil service and held a lot of power and influence. Their salaries were also the highest in the civil service, reflecting their importance and status.

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The country that is not a member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is Britain. OPEC is a global organization made up of countries that are major producers of oil, and its goal is to coordinate and unify the petroleum policies of its member countries to ensure fair and stable prices for petroleum producers and a regular supply for consumers. Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Nigeria, and Venezuela are all members of OPEC, while Britain is not.

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A constitution review body elected by members of the electorate is known as a Constituent Assembly. A Constituent Assembly is a body that is elected by the people for the purpose of drafting or amending a constitution. It is made up of representatives from various groups and constituencies within a country, and its primary responsibility is to ensure that the new or revised constitution reflects the wishes and aspirations of the people. The members of the Constituent Assembly are elected by the people through a democratic process, and they are given the mandate to review and recommend changes to the constitution.

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The characteristic that was absent in the pre-colonial administration of the Igbos is a hierarchical and centralized administration. The pre-colonial Igbo society was organized in a more decentralized way, with various autonomous communities and clans having their own leaders and decision-making processes. The Igbo people believed in consultations and consensus-building, where decisions were made by the community as a whole through discussions and debates. The traditional rulers and chiefs played important roles in the administration, but they were not absolute rulers and their powers were checked by various institutions and mechanisms, such as age-grades, secret societies, and the council of elders. The Igbo people also had a rich mixture of spiritual and temporal roles, where religious and spiritual symbols were intertwined with the political and social structures of the society. Therefore, the absence of a hierarchical and centralized administration was a key characteristic of the pre-colonial Igbo administration.

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The first past the post system of voting is also known as the simple majority method. In this system, the candidate who receives the highest number of votes in a constituency wins the election, regardless of whether or not they have an absolute majority. It is called "first past the post" because the finish line in a horse race is a good metaphor for the system: the candidate who crosses the line first (gets the most votes) wins the race (the election).

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The type of government in which citizen's rights and duties were based on a system of land tenure was known as feudalism. Feudalism was a political and economic system that emerged in Europe during the Middle Ages, characterized by a strict social hierarchy and a land-based economy. In a feudal system, the king granted land to lords, who then granted land to vassals, who in turn granted land to peasants or serfs. In exchange for the land, the lord required military service and loyalty from his vassals, while the peasants or serfs were required to work the land and give a portion of their crops to the lord. Feudalism was based on personal relationships rather than formal legal structures, and the system lasted until the rise of nation-states and the modernization of the economy in the 16th and 17th centuries.

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When a constitution contains complicated and long procedures for its amendments, it is said to be "rigid." A rigid constitution is one that is difficult to amend, requiring special and often lengthy procedures to make changes to it. This is done to ensure that the fundamental principles and rights enshrined in the constitution are protected from arbitrary or frequent amendments, and that any changes made are carefully considered and agreed upon by a wide range of stakeholders. Countries with rigid constitutions typically require a supermajority vote or other complex procedures to amend them, as opposed to flexible constitutions which can be easily amended by a simple majority vote.

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The theory of separation of powers is a fundamental principle of modern democratic governance which aims to ensure that the different functions of government are carried out by different organs or branches of government. The principle was for the first time clearly formulated by Baron de Montesquieu, a French political philosopher, in his influential work "The Spirit of Laws" published in 1748. In this work, Montesquieu argued that the powers of government should be divided into three distinct branches - the executive, the legislative, and the judiciary - and each should be separate and independent from the others to prevent the abuse of power. This concept of separation of powers has since become a cornerstone of modern constitutionalism and has been adopted by many democratic countries around the world.

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The responsibility that is not the responsibility of an Electoral Commission is the "nomination of candidates". The Electoral Commission is responsible for the creation of constituencies, registration of voters, registration of political parties, provision of polling booths, among other responsibilities. However, the nomination of candidates is the responsibility of political parties and independent candidates who must meet the requirements set by the Electoral Commission to contest for an election.

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Nigeria sent a peace-keeping force under the United Nations Organization to Lebanon.

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The head of the executive branch of a parliamentary system is called the Prime Minister. In a parliamentary system, the head of the government is the Prime Minister, who is the leader of the political party or coalition that has the majority of seats in the parliament. The Prime Minister is appointed by the monarch or president, depending on the type of parliamentary system in place. The Prime Minister has the responsibility of selecting and leading the cabinet of ministers who are responsible for running the government and making decisions on behalf of the country. They are also responsible for the day-to-day administration of the country and act as the spokesperson for the government on national and international matters. In contrast to a presidential system, where the President is both the head of state and head of the government, in a parliamentary system, the head of state is a different person, such as a monarch or president, who has a ceremonial role and represents the country on official occasions. Therefore, the correct answer is: Prime Minister.

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Under military rule in Nigeria, powers were more fused than separated. This means that the military exercised control over all arms of government and had a great influence over decision-making processes. Military leaders were often the heads of government and held executive, legislative, and judicial powers. The judiciary was also often subject to military control, and constitutional rights were often suspended. This resulted in a concentration of power in the hands of the military and a lack of separation of powers that is characteristic of democratic systems.

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Meaning of a party manifesto

A party manifesto is a written statement of the aims, programmes, policies and promises of a political party, published and presented to the electorate, usually before an election, to explain what the party intends to do if it is voted into power. It is the official document that sets out the party's plans on matters such as the economy, education, health, security and infrastructure.

Why it is necessary

1. It informs the electorate: It tells the voters the intentions, policies and programmes of the party so that they can make an informed choice.
2. Basis for comparison: It enables voters to compare the programmes of different parties before deciding whom to support.
3. Guide to governance: It serves as a plan of action and reference point for the party's government once it assumes office.
4. Instrument of accountability: It allows the electorate to measure the performance of the government against its promises and to reward or punish it at the next election.
5. Political education: It enlightens citizens on national issues and the workings of government.
6. Mobilisation of support: It helps the party to canvass for votes and win the confidence of the people during campaigns.

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The 1976 Local Government Reform was intended to make local governments the effective third tier of government and instruments of grassroots development. Despite this, local governments in Nigeria have remained largely inefficient. The reasons include the following.

1. Inadequate finance: Local governments depend heavily on statutory allocations from the federal and state governments and have a weak internal revenue base, so they lack the funds to discharge their functions effectively.
2. Undue interference by state governments: State governments frequently dissolve elected councils, appoint caretaker committees, delay the release of statutory allocations and dictate how funds are spent, thereby undermining local autonomy.
3. Corruption and financial mismanagement: Embezzlement, inflation of contracts and diversion of funds by council officials and functionaries deprive the councils of resources meant for development.
4. Shortage of qualified personnel: Many councils are staffed by poorly trained and unqualified personnel, and skilled workers are reluctant to serve in rural areas, weakening administrative capacity.
5. Political instability and frequent changes: Constant changes of government, especially military interventions and the frequent creation and dissolution of councils, prevent continuity and long-term planning.
6. Excessive functions with limited resources: Councils are assigned wide responsibilities that are disproportionate to the funds and manpower available to them.
7. Joint state-local government account: The operation of a joint account has enabled some state governments to withhold or divert funds belonging to local governments.
8. Political interference in appointments and contracts: Godfatherism and partisan considerations rather than merit often determine appointments and the award of contracts, lowering the quality of service.
9. Poor supervision and accountability: Weak monitoring and audit mechanisms allow inefficiency and waste to go unchecked.
10. Apathy of the local populace: Low citizen participation and lack of interest in local government affairs reduce the pressure on councils to perform.

These combined factors have kept many Nigerian local governments from delivering the grassroots development the 1976 reform envisaged.

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Support for African liberation movements has been a cornerstone of Nigeria's foreign policy since independence, flowing from the Afrocentric principle that Africa is the centrepiece of Nigeria's external relations. Nigeria gave this support in the following ways.

1. Financial and material assistance: Nigeria donated large sums of money and materials to liberation movements such as the ANC and PAC of South Africa, SWAPO of Namibia, FRELIMO of Mozambique, MPLA of Angola and ZANU/ZAPU of Zimbabwe, often channelled through the OAU Liberation Committee.
2. Establishment of relief and solidarity funds: Nigeria created special funds, including the Southern Africa Relief Fund and the National Committee Against Apartheid, and the government encouraged citizens and workers to contribute part of their salaries to the anti-apartheid struggle.
3. Diplomatic and moral support: Nigeria consistently used its voice at the United Nations, the OAU, the Commonwealth and the Non-Aligned Movement to condemn colonialism and apartheid and to press for the isolation of racist regimes.
4. Imposition of economic sanctions: Nigeria applied economic pressure, boycotted South African goods, and in 1979 nationalised the assets of British Petroleum in Nigeria to compel Britain to change its policy toward Rhodesia and South Africa.
5. Provision of training and scholarships: Nigeria trained freedom fighters and offered educational scholarships and asylum to nationalists and refugees from colonial and apartheid territories.
6. Recognition of liberation movements: Nigeria recognised liberation movements as legitimate representatives of their peoples and helped secure their recognition by international bodies.
7. Support for a frontline role and use of the sports boycott: Nigeria backed the frontline states and led boycotts of international sporting and cultural events (for example the 1976 Montreal Olympics and the 1978 Commonwealth Games) that involved apartheid South Africa.
8. Hosting of conferences and mobilisation of world opinion: Nigeria hosted anti-apartheid conferences and mobilised African and international opinion against colonialism and racial discrimination.

Through these efforts Nigeria earned a reputation as a frontline advocate of African liberation despite being geographically distant from Southern Africa.

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The efficiency of the judiciary in safeguarding the rights of citizens can be guaranteed through the following measures:

1. Independence of the judiciary: Judges should be free from control or interference by the executive and legislature so that they can decide cases impartially.
2. Security of tenure: Judges should hold office until retirement and should not be arbitrarily removed, dismissed or have their salaries reduced, so that they can act without fear or favour.
3. Adequate funding: The judiciary should be given financial autonomy and sufficient resources to function effectively and resist inducement.
4. Appointment of qualified and competent judges: Only persons of proven learning, experience and integrity should be appointed to the bench.
5. Fair and adequate remuneration: Judges should be well paid to reduce the temptation of corruption and bribery.
6. Separation of powers: Clear division of powers among the three arms of government prevents the abuse of judicial functions.
7. Free access to the courts: The rules and cost of litigation should be simplified and legal aid provided so that even the poor can seek justice.
8. Speedy dispensation of justice: Delay should be reduced by providing enough courts, judges and modern facilities so that justice is not denied.
9. Public confidence and the rule of law: The government and citizens must respect and enforce court judgements.

(Any relevant points are acceptable.)

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The successful operation of democracy in Nigeria has been hindered by the following factors:

1. Ethnicity and tribalism: Strong loyalty to ethnic groups rather than to the nation breeds division, and politics is often organised along ethnic lines.
2. Corruption: Widespread corruption among leaders diverts public funds and erodes public confidence in democratic institutions.
3. Electoral malpractice: Rigging, thuggery, vote-buying and manipulation of results deny the people genuine representation and legitimacy.
4. Illiteracy and ignorance: A large section of the electorate is uneducated and easily deceived or manipulated by politicians.
5. Poverty: Mass poverty makes voters susceptible to bribery and encourages political violence for money.
6. Military interference: Frequent military coups in the past interrupted democratic rule and weakened democratic institutions.
7. Godfatherism: The domination of politics by powerful godfathers undermines internal party democracy and the independence of elected officials.
8. Religious intolerance: Religious differences and fanaticism sometimes cause conflict and distort political choices.
9. Weak institutions: Weak and manipulated electoral bodies, judiciary and other institutions fail to check abuses effectively.
10. Insecurity and political violence: Insurgency, assassination and unrest disrupt the peaceful conduct of politics and elections.

(Any relevant points, well explained, are acceptable.)

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(a) Meaning of political socialization

Political socialization is the process by which an individual acquires political knowledge, values, beliefs, attitudes and orientations towards the political system of his society. It is the lifelong learning process through which people come to understand their political roles, develop political opinions, and form loyalties that shape their political behaviour.

(b) Major agents of political socialization

1. The family: As the first agent, the family transmits early political attitudes, values and party loyalties to the child.
2. The school: Through civic education, history and interaction, the school teaches citizens about government, rights, duties and national values.
3. Peer groups: Friends and associates influence one another's political opinions, attitudes and participation.
4. The mass media: Newspapers, radio, television and the internet inform, educate and shape public opinion on political issues.
5. Religious institutions: Churches and mosques teach moral and civic values that affect political outlook and conduct.
6. Political parties and pressure groups: They mobilise, educate and orient citizens on political ideologies, issues and participation.
7. The government/state: Through its institutions, symbols, ceremonies and policies, the state instils loyalty and a sense of national identity.

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General Ibrahim Babangida came to power on 27 August 1985 after overthrowing the Buhari regime, and styled himself President rather than Head of State. Up to 1990 his administration was organised through the following structure of military rule.

1. The President and Commander-in-Chief: Babangida stood at the apex as military President and Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, combining the roles of head of state, head of government and supreme commander. He concentrated wide personal powers in his office.
2. The Armed Forces Ruling Council (AFRC): This was the highest policy-making and law-making organ, replacing the former Supreme Military Council. Composed of senior military officers, it made decrees, formulated national policy and took major decisions of state. It combined executive and legislative authority.
3. The National Council of Ministers (Federal Executive Council): Headed by the President, it was made up of both military officers and civilian ministers who administered the various ministries and executed government policy at the federal level.
4. The Council of State: An advisory body that included former heads of state, service chiefs and other notable figures, which advised the President on major national issues.
5. Rule by decree: Government was conducted through decrees issued by the AFRC, which had the force of law and could not be challenged in the ordinary courts; the constitution remained largely suspended.
6. State and local administration: Each state was administered by a Military Governor appointed by and answerable to the President, assisted by a State Executive Council. Local governments were run by appointed sole administrators or committees, later moving toward elected councils under the transition programme.
7. Retention of the judiciary: The regular courts continued to function in ordinary matters, though their jurisdiction was ousted in respect of decrees, and special military tribunals handled certain offences.
8. Transition machinery: The administration created bodies such as the Political Bureau, the Directorate for Social Mobilisation (MAMSER), the National Electoral Commission and the Constituent Assembly to run its programme of transition to civil rule.

The structure therefore fused executive and legislative power in a military hierarchy topped by the President, exercised largely through decrees and appointed officials at every level.

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The Lyttleton Constitution of 1954 is widely regarded as the constitution that firmly established a federal system in Nigeria. It reversed the semi-unitary tendencies of the earlier Macpherson Constitution and introduced arrangements that reflected the essential features of true federalism.

1. Formal declaration of a federation: The 1954 Constitution expressly declared Nigeria a federation made up of three regions (Northern, Western and Eastern) together with the Federal Territory of Lagos, replacing the loose "unitary-federal" character of earlier arrangements.
2. Division of powers between two levels of government: It created a clear distribution of legislative powers through an Exclusive List (matters reserved for the Central Government such as defence, external affairs, currency and customs) and a Concurrent List (matters on which both the Central and Regional Governments could legislate). Residual matters were left to the regions. This constitutional sharing of powers is the hallmark of federalism.
3. Regional autonomy: Each region was given its own government, legislature and public service, and could act independently within its assigned sphere without interference from the Centre. The regions were no longer mere administrative appendages of the Centre.
4. Separate regional executives: Each region had its own Executive Council headed by a Premier, giving the regions genuine self-governing capacity.
5. Regionalisation of the public and judicial services: The civil service, the judiciary (regional High Courts) and other services were regionalised, so that each region controlled its own administrative machinery.
6. Removal of Lagos from the Western Region: Lagos was made a separate Federal Territory administered by the Central Government, underscoring the distinct status of the federal capital.
7. Provision for self-government at regional pace: Regions were allowed to attain internal self-government at their own time, which the East and West did in 1957 and the North in 1959, reflecting the autonomy of the component units.
8. Revenue allocation on the principle of derivation: Fiscal arrangements were reorganised so that regions retained a share of revenue derived from their areas, giving them financial independence to run their own affairs.

Through these features, the 1954 Constitution laid the foundation of Nigerian federalism by combining a strong Central Government with autonomous regional governments, each supreme within its constitutional sphere.

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Meaning of Fundamental Human Rights

Fundamental Human Rights are the basic rights, freedoms and privileges to which every human being is entitled by virtue of being a person. They are inalienable, natural rights which the state recognises and guarantees to all citizens, and which cannot lawfully be taken away except by due process of law. Examples include the right to life, personal liberty, freedom of expression, freedom of movement, freedom of association, freedom of thought, conscience and religion, right to fair hearing, right to private and family life, and freedom from discrimination.

Why it is entrenched in a constitution

1. Protection from abuse of power: Entrenchment shields citizens' rights against arbitrary interference by the government and its officials.
2. Difficulty of amendment: Being placed in the constitution with a rigid amendment procedure makes the rights secure and not easily tampered with by an ordinary law.
3. Enforceability in court: Entrenchment makes the rights justiciable, so that any citizen whose rights are violated can seek redress in the courts.
4. Promotion of the rule of law and democracy: It ensures equality before the law and limits governmental power, sustaining democratic governance.
5. Preservation of human dignity and freedom: It guarantees the liberty, dignity and welfare of the individual within the state.
6. Check on tyranny: It prevents the emergence of dictatorship by placing clear limits on what government may do to the citizen.