WAEC SSCE - Government - 2005

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The right of the citizens to vote and be voted for in an election is called franchise. It refers to the right to participate in an election and is an essential aspect of democratic societies. The right to franchise is a fundamental right that guarantees the participation of citizens in the selection of their leaders. It allows individuals to choose their representatives and express their opinions through the ballot box. Without the right to franchise, the concept of democracy would not exist, and people would have no say in the governance of their country.

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Public corporations are established by an act of parliament. This means that the government passes a law to create a legal entity that operates independently and serves a public purpose. The purpose of a public corporation may include providing essential services such as healthcare, education, transport, and energy. Public corporations are governed by a board of directors who are appointed by the government or the relevant minister. The board of directors is responsible for managing the affairs of the corporation and ensuring that it achieves its objectives in a transparent and accountable manner.

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The secret ballot system of election is a voting process in which the voter's choice is kept secret. One major advantage of the secret ballot system of election is that it removes the fears of threat and victimization. This means that voters can vote for their preferred candidate without fear of being intimidated or victimized by individuals or groups who may not support their choice. The secret ballot system of election ensures that the votes cast are anonymous, and this promotes transparency, credibility, and fairness in the electoral process. It also guarantees that the election is free and fair, as each voter is free to vote for the candidate of their choice, without external pressure.

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The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) was formed to promote economic relations in West Africa. ECOWAS is a regional organization that was established in 1975 by West African states to promote economic integration and cooperation among its member states. Its primary goal is to create a common market among its member countries, enhance economic development, and improve the living standards of its citizens. ECOWAS works towards achieving this by implementing policies that promote trade liberalization, free movement of goods and persons, and regional infrastructure development.

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The principle of collective responsibility is central to the parliamentary system. This principle states that all members of the government are collectively responsible for the actions and decisions of the government, and if any one of them acts improperly or makes a mistake, the entire government is held accountable. This means that if a member of the government is found to have acted improperly or made a mistake, the entire government may be forced to resign or face a vote of no confidence. This principle ensures that the government acts as a cohesive unit and that all members are held accountable for their actions.

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The industrial revolution was a period of significant change that occurred in Europe between the 18th and 19th centuries. It marked the transition from manual labor to machine-based manufacturing, which had a profound impact on economic and social structures. One of the main results of the industrial revolution was the rise of capitalism, an economic system in which private individuals own and operate businesses for profit. This was made possible by the new technologies and manufacturing processes that were developed during this time. The industrial revolution also led to urbanization, as people moved from rural areas to cities to work in factories, and to the growth of the middle class, as entrepreneurs and business owners profited from the new economic opportunities.

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The main representative achievement of the United Nations Organization (UNO) is the prevention of another world war. The UNO was formed in 1945 after the end of World War II, and one of its primary goals was to prevent another global war. The UNO has played a significant role in promoting international peace and security by providing a forum for nations to discuss and resolve conflicts peacefully. The UNO has also taken steps to reduce the spread of nuclear weapons, promote human rights, and provide humanitarian assistance to people affected by conflicts and disasters. While the UNO has faced challenges and criticisms over the years, its efforts to prevent another world war are widely regarded as its most significant achievement.

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A local government administration promotes democracy at the grassroots level. Local government is the tier of government closest to the people and is responsible for providing basic services and amenities to the community such as waste management, water supply, street lighting, and maintenance of public infrastructure. Through local government administration, the people are able to participate in decision-making processes that affect their immediate communities, as well as hold their elected representatives accountable for their actions. This promotes democracy at the grassroots level and ensures that the needs and concerns of the people are addressed at the local level.

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The civil service is a professional body responsible for implementing government policies and delivering public services. It is known for its key features, which include anonymity, political neutrality and impartiality, and security of tenure and permanence. However, political maturity and participation are not considered features of the civil service. The civil service is expected to remain neutral and apolitical while providing advice and implementing government policies. Political maturity and participation are characteristics that are generally associated with political parties and elected officials, not civil servants.

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The Party Whip is a member of a political party who is responsible for ensuring that party members in the legislature vote in accordance with the party's policies and decisions. One of their functions is to ensure that members are present during important sessions, such as when key votes are taking place. They may also be responsible for counting the votes of party members and enforcing discipline among them to ensure they vote in line with party directives. Therefore, the answer is: "ensure that members are present during important sessions."

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Peace-keeping is associated with the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). ECOWAS was established to promote regional economic integration and cooperation among West African countries. One of its major functions is to maintain peace and security in the region through various peacekeeping initiatives, including the deployment of military and civilian peacekeeping missions. ECOWAS has successfully mediated and resolved conflicts in several West African countries, such as Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Cote d'Ivoire. Therefore, peacekeeping is an integral part of ECOWAS's mandate and activities.

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To promote justice in a state, judges must enjoy security of tenure of office. This means that judges should not be subject to arbitrary removal or transfer from their position, except for reasons such as misconduct or incapacity. This protects judges from political interference and allows them to make decisions without fear of retribution. By having secure tenure, judges can act independently and impartially, and thereby promote justice by upholding the rule of law.

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The practice of two or more sovereign states uniting for security and external affairs is called confederalism. This means that the states come together to form a confederation where they retain their sovereignty, but delegate some powers to a central authority to handle certain matters such as defense and foreign affairs. It is different from federalism where the central government has more power and the states have less autonomy. Confederalism is a way for states to cooperate and work together while maintaining their independence.

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The main cause of military intervention in government in West Africa was the breakdown of democratic institutions. Military coups occurred in West Africa as a result of weak and ineffective democratic institutions, poor governance, and political instability. The military saw itself as the only solution to the problems faced by the countries in the region, and they believed that they could restore stability by taking over the government. The coups d'état were often justified as a way to save the nation from corrupt and inept civilian politicians. However, military rule often led to human rights abuses, political repression, and economic decline, which further undermined the stability and progress of the affected countries.

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The direct rule policy refers to the system of colonial administration where the colonial power directly governed the colony without any involvement of local rulers. This policy was not successful in some parts of West Africa because the traditional rulers in those areas had significant powers and were not willing to surrender them to the colonial power. Also, the colonial power did not have enough personnel to govern effectively and efficiently in these areas. Additionally, the local elites were not willing to cooperate with the colonial authorities, and some even resisted the policy, making it difficult for the policy to succeed.

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The judiciary is an organ of government that settles disputes and interprets the laws of the land. It is responsible for ensuring that justice is administered fairly and impartially in accordance with the laws of the country. The judiciary has the power to review the actions of the executive and legislative branches of government and declare them unconstitutional if they violate the laws of the country. The judiciary is also responsible for interpreting the laws of the land and ensuring that they are applied fairly and consistently in all cases.

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The option that is not an essential function of political parties is "seek political power for the military". Political parties are organizations that seek to win elections and control government in order to implement their policies and ideologies. The primary functions of political parties include aggregating the interests of members of the public, serving as a link between the government and the people, and seeking political power lawfully through free and fair elections. Seeking political power for the military is not a legitimate function of political parties, as it goes against democratic principles and can lead to authoritarianism and human rights abuses.

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The West African Students Union (WASU) was formed in London in 1925. The organization was created by West African students studying in the United Kingdom to advocate for self-government and political independence in their home countries. The formation of the union played a significant role in fostering Pan-Africanism and the development of nationalist movements in West Africa.

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The feature that is not part of a democratic system of government is "limited franchise." A limited franchise is a system of voting where only a certain group of people are allowed to vote, such as a particular race, gender, or social class. In a democratic system of government, the right to vote is extended to all eligible citizens, regardless of their race, gender, or social class. Therefore, limited franchise goes against the principle of universal suffrage, which is a fundamental tenet of a democratic system of government. The other options, official opposition, periodic elections, and rule of law are essential features of a democratic system of government.

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A referendum is an election held to determine an important constitutional issue. In a referendum, the citizens of a country are called upon to vote on a specific proposal, which may include changes to the constitution, laws, or policies. The result of the referendum is binding and can have significant implications for the country. Referendums can be initiated by the government or by citizens through a petition process. In general, referendums are used to obtain public approval for significant changes to the political system, and to ensure that the decisions made by elected representatives are consistent with the views of the citizens they represent.

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A unitary system of government is most suitable for a small, homogeneous country. This is because in a unitary system of government, all powers are concentrated in the central government, which exercises control over the entire country. This form of government is easier to manage in a small country with a homogenous population that shares similar values, beliefs, and interests. In such a country, it is easier for the central government to make and implement decisions that will benefit the entire population. However, in a large, diverse country with multiple ethnic and linguistic groups, a unitary system of government may lead to the marginalization of certain groups, and a federal or decentralized system of government may be more suitable.

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The means of limiting the rule of law from the options provided is "Immunity granted to diplomats". Diplomatic immunity is a concept in international law that allows diplomats to perform their duties without fear of legal repercussions in their host country. This means that they are not subject to prosecution or civil lawsuits in the country where they are serving. While diplomatic immunity is necessary to ensure that diplomats can perform their functions effectively, it can also limit the application of the rule of law by allowing individuals to escape legal consequences for their actions.

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Nigeria is the West African country that operated a federal constitution at independence. A federal constitution is a system of government in which power is shared between a central government and constituent political units, such as states or provinces. At independence, Nigeria was divided into three regions, each with its own regional government and legislature. The federal government also had its own central government and legislature. The federal system allowed for a measure of autonomy and self-rule for the regions, while still maintaining a central government for national issues.

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Military governments are likely to be dictatorial. When the military seizes power, it often suspends democratic institutions and civil liberties, ruling by decree and suppressing opposition. Military regimes are often characterized by repression, human rights abuses, and lack of accountability. They may also prioritize military interests over civilian concerns and lack the checks and balances that are typically found in democratic governments.

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The National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA) was an organization that aimed to promote unity among the British West African colonies. One of its achievements was the introduction of the elective principle, which allowed Africans to participate in the decision-making process of their own government. This led to the emergence of African political leaders who were able to represent their people and push for reforms that would improve their living standards. As a result, the NCBWA played a significant role in the development of African nationalism and the struggle for independence in West Africa.

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An agreed set of rules prescribing the governance of a country can be the Constitution. A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents that a state or other organization is governed by. It serves as a framework for the organization of government, the relationship between the government and the people, and the rights and duties of citizens. A constitution typically outlines the powers and duties of the government, establishes the structure of the government, and sets limits on its power. It is often considered the supreme law of the land and is typically difficult to amend.

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A free and fair election requires all of the following except a gerrymandered constituency. A gerrymandered constituency refers to a district or constituency that has been drawn in a way that unfairly benefits a particular political party or group. This can be achieved by manipulating the boundaries of the district in such a way as to exclude or include certain voters or communities. A free and fair election requires a level playing field where all political parties and candidates have an equal chance to compete for votes, and where all voters have an equal opportunity to participate in the election. This requires a fair and impartial electoral system, free from any form of manipulation or bias. It also requires a transparent and accountable election administration that is independent and impartial, and which is trusted by all stakeholders in the electoral process.

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A unicameral legislature has only one house, which means that all legislative functions are carried out by a single body. This is in contrast to a bicameral legislature, which has two houses. In a unicameral legislature, laws are proposed, debated, and voted on by a single group of legislators. The advantage of a unicameral legislature is that it is usually less expensive to operate than a bicameral legislature, and it can be more efficient in passing legislation because there are fewer stages for a bill to pass before it becomes law.

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The lack of interest in politics by many citizens in a country is called "mass apathy." This refers to a situation where a large portion of the population is disengaged or indifferent towards political matters, such as elections, government policies, or civic participation. Mass apathy can lead to a lack of political participation, which in turn may result in low voter turnout, ineffective government, and a general lack of public engagement.

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Sovereignty ultimately resides in the people within a political society. This means that the ultimate power and authority to make decisions and govern a country rests with its citizens, rather than with any individual leader, branch of government, or external force. In a democratic system, the people exercise their sovereignty through regular elections and other forms of political participation, and elected officials are accountable to the people for their actions. The principle of popular sovereignty is a key element of many modern democratic systems, reflecting the belief that government should be of the people, by the people, and for the people.

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People pay taxes in order to generate revenue for the government. This revenue is used to fund public services and infrastructure such as roads, schools, hospitals, public transportation, and national defense. Taxes are mandatory payments that individuals, businesses, and other organizations are required to pay to the government, which uses the funds to provide these services and maintain public order. Paying taxes is an important civic duty and is essential for the functioning of a modern society.

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The political concept that is associated with land ownership is Feudalism. Feudalism is a social and economic system that was prominent in medieval Europe, in which land ownership was central to the political and social structure. Under feudalism, the king granted land to lords or nobles in exchange for military service or other duties, and these lords then granted smaller parcels of land to vassals who served them in a similar way. The people who lived and worked on these lands were often serfs, who were tied to the land and could not leave without permission. Therefore, feudalism is associated with the idea that ownership of land is tied to social and political power.

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The first colonial consul sent to administer the West Coast of Africa by Britain was John Beecroft. John Beecroft was appointed the British Consul for the Bights of Benin and Biafra in 1849. He played a significant role in the colonization of Lagos and later became the governor of the British Crown Colony of Lagos in 1862.

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The executive head who was responsible for British colonial territories in West Africa was the Secretary of State. The Secretary of State was a senior member of the British government who oversaw the administration of the British colonies, including those in West Africa. The position was responsible for policies and decisions relating to the colonies, including economic, social, and political issues. The Secretary of State had significant power and influence over the colonies, and was instrumental in shaping the direction of British colonial policy in West Africa.

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A.V. Dicey is associated with the concept of the rule of law. He was a British jurist and constitutional theorist who defined the rule of law as one of the fundamental principles of the British constitution. According to Dicey, the rule of law means that all individuals and institutions, including the government, are subject to and must abide by the law. This concept is based on the idea that the law is supreme and that it applies equally to all individuals and groups in society. Dicey's work on the rule of law has been influential not only in the UK but also in many other countries around the world.

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A multi-party system often leads to a coalition government. This is because in a multi-party system, no single party is likely to win an outright majority of seats in the legislature. As a result, two or more parties may be forced to form a coalition in order to gain a majority and form a government. In a coalition government, the parties involved work together to form a government, often by agreeing on a common agenda and sharing ministerial positions. This can lead to greater political stability, as well as a more representative government that reflects the diverse views of the electorate. However, it can also lead to compromise and gridlock if the parties involved are unable to agree on key issues.

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A pressure group is a group of people who share common interests and goals, and they work together to influence government policies. Therefore, the main objective of a pressure group is to influence the government to adopt policies or take actions that are in line with the interests and goals of the group. The group may lobby the government, organize protests, or engage in other forms of advocacy to achieve their objectives. The ultimate aim of a pressure group is to ensure that their interests and goals are represented and advocated for in government decision-making.

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The main objective of the African Union (AU) is to encourage co-operation among member states. The AU was established in 2002 to replace the Organization of African Unity (OAU). It is a continental union of 55 member states in Africa and aims to promote unity, solidarity, and co-operation among its members. The AU also works to promote democracy, human rights, and sustainable economic growth across the continent. By promoting co-operation among member states, the AU aims to foster peaceful relations and promote the interests of Africa on the global stage.

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A unicameral legislature refers to a system of government that has only one house in its legislature. This means that there is only one chamber that makes laws and decisions for the entire system, as opposed to a bicameral legislature where there are two chambers. The term "uni" means "one," so unicameral literally means "one-chambered." Some countries, such as China and New Zealand, have unicameral legislatures, while others, such as the United States and Nigeria, have bicameral legislatures.

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An electoral college is a form of indirect election where a group of people selected by voters casts their vote on behalf of the citizens. This method is used to elect the president in the United States, where the citizens vote for electors who then cast their votes in the Electoral College to decide the winner of the election. The number of electors each state has is based on the number of representatives in Congress that state has. The candidate who receives a majority of electoral votes (270 out of 538) is declared the winner of the presidential election.

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Political opinion can be expressed through general strike. A general strike is a type of strike action in which a large proportion of the total labour force in a city, region or country participates. It is generally organised by a group of workers as a protest against economic or political conditions. A general strike is a powerful tool that can be used to express dissatisfaction with government policies or decisions. It is a way for people to make their voices heard and to show that they are not happy with the current situation.

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A constitution is said to be rigid if it is difficult to amend. A rigid constitution typically requires a complex amendment process involving multiple steps and broad support from various branches of government or the population. This is in contrast to a flexible or "unwritten" constitution, which can be easily amended through legislative or executive action. A constitution that is decreed by soldiers, on the other hand, is typically considered an authoritarian constitution, rather than a rigid or flexible one.

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The policy of indigenat was practiced in the colonies controlled by France. This policy was a set of laws that created a legal distinction between the colonizers and the colonized people, giving the colonizers almost unlimited power over the lives of the colonized people. The policy was designed to ensure that the colonizers maintained their dominance over the colonized people and prevented them from gaining political power or even having basic civil rights. The policy was widely criticized and opposed by many activists and organizations, as it was a clear violation of human rights and an abuse of power.

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(a) Meaning of federal character (with two examples)

Federal character is a principle, enshrined in the Nigerian Constitution, which requires that the composition of the government and its agencies, and the conduct of their affairs, should reflect the federal, ethnic, geographical and religious diversity of the country so as to promote national unity, give every section a sense of belonging and prevent the domination of the government by persons from a few states or ethnic groups. In short, appointments and the distribution of amenities and offices must fairly represent all the component parts of the federation. Examples of its application include:

• The requirement that the President appoints at least one minister from each of the 36 states of the federation.
• The use of quota system in admission into federal institutions such as the unity schools, the armed forces, the police and the federal civil service, so that candidates from all states are represented.

(b) Three factors responsible for the introduction of federal character

1. Ethnic diversity and rivalry: Nigeria is a multi-ethnic society and there was need to accommodate the many groups fairly and reduce inter-ethnic suspicion and rivalry.
2. Fear of domination and marginalisation: The minority and less developed groups feared domination by the larger and more advanced groups, so the principle was introduced to protect them and ensure equity.
3. The desire for national unity and integration: To bind the diverse peoples together, give every group a sense of belonging and foster loyalty to the nation, federal character was adopted.
4. Uneven development among the sections: Differences in educational and economic development among the regions made it necessary to balance opportunities so that no area was left behind.

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(a) Meaning of authority

Authority is the legal or rightful power vested in a person or body to give commands, take decisions, enforce obedience and be obeyed by others. It is power that is recognised as legitimate, meaning the people accept the right of the holder to exercise it. Authority differs from raw power because it is backed by law, custom or general acceptance, so obedience is given willingly rather than merely out of fear. For example, a police officer directing traffic or a court passing judgment exercises authority.

(b) Main sources of political authority

1. The constitution and law: A written or unwritten constitution and the laws of the land confer authority on offices and office holders and define the limits of that authority.
2. Tradition and custom: In traditional societies, authority is derived from long established customs, usages and inheritance, as in the case of kings and chiefs who rule by birthright.
3. Charisma (personal qualities): The exceptional personal gifts, magnetism and leadership qualities of an individual can attract followers and confer authority, as with a popular revolutionary or religious leader.
4. The people (popular consent or election): In a democracy, authority flows from the sovereign will of the people expressed through free elections and mandate.
5. Delegation: Authority may be handed down from a superior body or officer to a subordinate, so that the subordinate acts with borrowed authority.
6. Religion: Divine or religious sanction can be a source of authority, as in theocratic states where rulers claim to govern in the name of God.

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(a) Three activities of the National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA)

The NCBWA was formed in 1920 under the leadership of Casely Hayford to press for reforms in the four British West African colonies (Nigeria, Gold Coast, Sierra Leone and the Gambia). Its activities included:

1. Sending a delegation and petitions to Britain: In 1920 the Congress sent a delegation to London to present petitions to the Colonial Secretary and the King demanding constitutional and political reforms.
2. Demand for elective principle and African representation: It agitated for the introduction of the elective principle so that Africans could elect their own representatives into the legislative councils, and for greater African participation in government.
3. Demand for other reforms: It campaigned for the establishment of a West African university, the appointment of Africans into higher positions in the civil service, judicial reform including the appointment of Africans as judges, and control of the press and municipal government by Africans.

(b) Three effects of the activities

1. Introduction of the elective principle: The agitation contributed to the granting of the Clifford Constitution of 1922 in Nigeria, which introduced the elective principle for the first time in British West Africa.
2. Growth of nationalism and political awareness: The activities awakened and stimulated political consciousness and nationalist feeling among West Africans, paving the way for later, more radical nationalist movements.
3. Emergence of political parties: The elective principle it helped to secure led directly to the formation of political parties such as the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) in 1923 to contest elections.
4. Increased African participation in government: It opened the way for greater involvement of educated Africans in the legislative councils and administration.

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(a) Meaning of representative government

A representative government is a system of government in which the people do not rule directly but elect representatives who make laws and take decisions on their behalf. Because it is impossible for all citizens in a large modern state to gather and govern themselves, they periodically choose, through free elections, a smaller body of persons to exercise governmental power in their name and interest. The representatives are accountable to the electorate and can be voted out at the next election. It is therefore a form of indirect democracy.

(b)(i) Two features of a representative government

• Representatives are chosen through periodic free and fair elections based on universal adult suffrage.
• The elected representatives are accountable and responsible to the people who can remove them at the next election.

(b)(ii) Three conditions necessary for a representative government

1. Regular free and fair elections: There must be periodic, honest elections conducted by an independent electoral body so that the choice of representatives reflects the true wishes of the people.
2. Existence of political parties and freedom of association: Two or more political parties should be free to organise, campaign and offer the electorate a genuine choice of candidates and programmes.
3. Fundamental human rights and freedom of expression: Citizens must enjoy freedom of speech, the press and assembly so that they can debate issues, criticise the government and make informed choices.
4. An enlightened and literate electorate: The people should be sufficiently educated and politically conscious to choose their representatives wisely and hold them accountable.
5. Rule of law and an independent judiciary: The law must be supreme and disputes, including electoral ones, settled fairly by impartial courts.

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(a) Separation of powers

Separation of powers is a constitutional principle, associated with the French political philosopher Baron de Montesquieu, which holds that the three organs of government, namely the legislature, the executive and the judiciary, should be kept separate and independent of one another. According to the principle, the same person or body should not exercise more than one of the three functions of government, and each organ should perform its own distinct function without interference from the others. The purpose is to prevent the concentration of power in one hand, guard against tyranny and dictatorship, and protect the liberty of the citizens.

(b) How separation of powers operates under the presidential system

1. Separate personnel: No person may belong to more than one organ at a time. A minister who is appointed into the executive cannot remain a member of the legislature, unlike in the parliamentary system.
2. Fixed and independent tenure: The President and the legislature are separately elected and each enjoys a fixed term. The President cannot dissolve the legislature, and the legislature cannot vote the President out through a simple vote of no confidence.
3. Distinct functions: The legislature makes the laws, the executive (President) implements and enforces the laws, and the judiciary interprets the laws and settles disputes, each within its own sphere.
4. Checks and balances: While the organs are separate, they check one another. The legislature makes laws but the President can veto bills; the President appoints judges and ministers but the legislature must confirm them; the legislature can impeach the President; and the judiciary can declare the acts of the executive or legislature unconstitutional through judicial review.
5. Independence of the judiciary: Judges enjoy security of tenure and cannot be easily removed, so that they can interpret the law and check the other arms without fear.

Thus, under the presidential system the principle operates not as a rigid, total separation, but as separated organs held together by a web of checks and balances.

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(a) Meaning of colonialism

Colonialism is the policy and practice by which a powerful nation acquires, controls and administers a weaker territory (a colony) and its people, exploiting its human and material resources for the benefit of the colonising power. Under colonialism the colony loses its sovereignty and independence and is governed from outside, its economy, politics and social life being subordinated to the interests of the mother country. In West Africa, Britain, France, Portugal and Germany established colonies which they ruled through systems such as indirect rule, assimilation and association.

(b) Five powers of the British Governor (using Nigeria as the West African colony)

1. Executive powers: The Governor was the head of the colonial administration who supervised all departments of government, appointed and dismissed officials and carried out the policies of the British Crown.
2. Legislative powers: He presided over the Legislative Council, initiated bills, and could enact laws and ordinances for the colony; his assent was required before any bill became law.
3. Power of veto and reservation: He could refuse assent to (veto) bills passed by the Council or reserve them for the pleasure of the Crown, thereby controlling legislation.
4. Emergency and reserve powers: In times of emergency the Governor could rule by decree, suspend the constitution and take any measure he considered necessary for peace, order and good government.
5. Judicial powers (prerogative of mercy): He could establish courts, appoint judges, and exercise the prerogative of mercy by pardoning, reprieving or commuting the sentences of convicted persons.
6. Control of finance: He supervised the colonial budget and public revenue and expenditure, and his approval was needed for financial measures.
7. Appointment of members: He nominated the official and unofficial members of the Legislative and Executive Councils.

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In the precolonial era, traditional rulers such as the Obas, Emirs, Obis and other chiefs and kings were the central authority in their communities and combined political, judicial, religious, military and economic roles. Their roles included the following:

1. Executive and administrative role: The traditional ruler was the head of the government of his community. He, together with his council of chiefs, made day to day administrative decisions, appointed subordinate officials and supervised the affairs of the state.
2. Law making (legislative) role: In consultation with his council of elders and title holders, the ruler made laws, bye-laws and regulations that guided the conduct of the people.
3. Judicial role: The ruler served as the highest judge in the land. He settled disputes, tried cases, interpreted customary law and imposed sanctions on offenders, often with his council acting as a court.
4. Religious and spiritual role: The traditional ruler was regarded as the spiritual head and link between the people and their ancestors or gods. He performed sacrifices and led important religious festivals for the well being of the community.
5. Military and defence role: He was the commander in chief who organised the community for defence, declared war, made peace and protected the people and territory against external aggression.
6. Economic and financial role: The ruler controlled land, collected tributes, taxes and tolls, regulated markets and trade, and supervised communal labour and the general economy.
7. Custodian of custom and culture: He preserved and upheld the customs, traditions, norms and values of the people and served as a symbol of unity and identity for the community.
8. Maintenance of law, order and peace: He kept peace, ensured security, and reconciled feuding families and groups within the community.

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The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) was established by the Treaty of Lagos on 28 May 1975 to promote cooperation and integration among the states of West Africa. Its main aims and objectives include:

1. Promotion of economic cooperation and integration: To harmonise and coordinate the economic policies of member states and eventually establish an economic union in West Africa for their collective development.
2. Establishment of a common market: To remove trade barriers, tariffs and customs duties among member states and create a large free-trade area that promotes the free movement of goods within the sub-region.
3. Free movement of persons, goods, services and capital: To abolish obstacles to the movement of citizens, labour, capital and services across the borders of member states and grant citizens the right of residence and establishment.
4. Raising the standard of living of the people: To accelerate economic growth and development so as to improve the living conditions and welfare of the people of West Africa.
5. Promotion of common development projects: To develop jointly transport, telecommunications, energy, industry and agriculture, and to pool resources for large infrastructural projects.
6. Maintenance of peace, security and stability: To foster harmonious relations, settle disputes among members peacefully, and maintain regional peace and security (as later pursued through the ECOWAS Monitoring Group, ECOMOG).
7. Promotion of solidarity and unity: To strengthen fraternity, cooperation and a sense of common identity among the peoples and governments of the sub-region.
8. Harmonisation of monetary and financial policies: To work towards a common currency and coordinated monetary systems for the sub-region.

Awọn alaye Idahun

(a) Meaning of bureaucracy

Bureaucracy refers to a system of administration in which the day to day business of government or a large organisation is carried out by trained, permanent and appointed officials arranged in a clear hierarchy of offices, each with defined duties, and operating according to fixed rules and procedures. The term is commonly used to describe the civil service, the body of professional public servants who advise the political heads and implement government policies. Its features include hierarchy of authority, specialisation and division of labour, impersonality, adherence to written rules, and permanence of officials. The idea was systematically analysed by the German sociologist Max Weber.

(b) Five functions of a modern civil service

1. Implementation of government policies: The civil service carries out and puts into effect the decisions and programmes made by the political executive.
2. Advising the government: Civil servants, because of their expertise and experience, advise ministers on the formulation of policies and the likely consequences of various options.
3. Provision of essential services: They deliver public services such as education, health, water, roads, security and other social amenities to the citizens.
4. Maintaining continuity and stability of administration: Being permanent, the civil service ensures that governance continues smoothly even when political governments change hands.
5. Collection of revenue and management of public finance: Civil servants assess and collect taxes, customs and other revenue and manage government expenditure.
6. Record keeping and provision of information: They keep official records, statistics and documents which serve as the memory of government and aid decision making.
7. Preparation of the national budget and drafting of bills: They assist in preparing estimates and drafting legislation for the legislature.

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(a) The concept of proletariat

The proletariat is a term made popular by Karl Marx to describe the working class in a capitalist society, that is, the mass of people who own no means of production (no land, factories or capital) and who therefore survive by selling their labour to the owners of capital (the bourgeoisie) in exchange for wages. They are the exploited class whose surplus labour, according to Marx, creates the profit enjoyed by the capitalist class. Marx predicted that the proletariat would eventually become conscious of their oppression, unite and overthrow the bourgeoisie in a revolution, leading to a classless, socialist society.

(b) Four features of socialism

1. Collective or public ownership of the means of production: Land, factories, industries and other major resources are owned and controlled by the state or the community on behalf of all, not by private individuals.
2. Central economic planning: Production, distribution and prices are directed by the state through a planned economy rather than by the free play of market forces.
3. Equitable distribution of wealth: Socialism aims at reducing inequality, sharing wealth fairly and providing for the basic needs of all citizens according to the principle of social justice.
4. Emphasis on social welfare and the common good: The state provides essential services such as education, health and housing free or at low cost, placing collective welfare above private profit.
5. Classless society: Socialism seeks to abolish exploitation and the class distinctions between the rich and the poor.

Awọn alaye Idahun

The Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) was founded by Herbert Macaulay in 1923, following the introduction of the elective principle by the Clifford Constitution of 1922. As Nigeria's first political party, it contributed to the political development of the country in the following ways:

1. First modern political party: The NNDP was the first properly organised political party in Nigeria, and it set the pattern and example for the formation of later parties, thereby laying the foundation of party politics.
2. Participation in elections: It contested and won the elective seats in Lagos in the elections of 1923, 1928 and 1933, giving practical meaning to the elective principle and demonstrating that Africans could organise for electoral competition.
3. Political education and awareness: Through its rallies, campaigns and programmes, the party educated Nigerians politically, raised their consciousness and encouraged them to take interest in the affairs of government.
4. Championing nationalist demands: The party campaigned for greater African participation in government, the Africanisation of the civil service, improved education and municipal reforms, thereby advancing the nationalist cause.
5. Use of the press: Through the Lagos Daily News and other platforms, the party criticised colonial policies, mobilised public opinion and defended the interests of Nigerians.
6. Training ground for nationalists: It produced and trained a crop of nationalist leaders and gave them experience in political organisation, which prepared the ground for the more radical parties like the NYM and NCNC that followed.
7. Promotion of the elective principle: Its success sustained and strengthened the elective principle and pressed for its extension to other parts of the country.

Awọn alaye Idahun

(a) Meaning of a coup d'etat

A coup d'etat is the sudden, forceful and unconstitutional seizure or overthrow of an existing government, usually by a section of the armed forces or a small group of persons, in violation of the constitution and normally accompanied by the use or threat of force. It replaces the legitimate government with a new set of rulers without recourse to the electorate. A coup may be bloody (violent, involving killings) or bloodless (achieved without loss of life).

(b) Five reasons for military intervention in politics in West Africa

1. Corruption and mismanagement: Widespread corruption, embezzlement of public funds and gross mismanagement of the economy by civilian politicians often provide the military an excuse to intervene in order to sanitise the system.
2. Political instability and disorder: Prolonged political crises, breakdown of law and order, election malpractices and violence create a vacuum which the military moves in to fill.
3. Bad governance and dictatorship: The abuse of power, disregard for the rule of law, suppression of opposition and tyranny by civilian governments provoke military takeover.
4. Personal and selfish ambition of soldiers: The desire of ambitious officers for power, wealth, promotion and prestige drives them to stage coups.
5. Economic hardship and decline: Inflation, unemployment, falling standards of living and general economic collapse breed discontent that the military exploits to seize power.
6. Ethnicity and sectionalism: Ethnic favouritism, marginalisation and the domination of one group by another can push aggrieved soldiers to intervene.
7. Foreign influence: External powers sometimes encourage or sponsor coups to protect their interests.