WAEC SSCE - Government - 2000

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In a presidential system, the executive power is vested in the President who is directly elected by the citizens of the country. Therefore, the vote power in a presidential system lies with the citizens who have the power to elect the President through the ballot box. The Attorney-General is the chief legal adviser of the government and is responsible for providing legal advice to the President and the government. The Chief of Army Staff is the highest-ranking military officer of the country and is responsible for the administration and control of the military. The Prime Minister is the head of the government in a parliamentary system and is responsible for running the day-to-day affairs of the government.

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Red tapism in the civil service refers to the slowness of action or delay in the implementation of administrative tasks due to bureaucratic procedures and excessive paperwork. It often results in inefficiency, wastage of time and resources, and frustration for citizens and government officials. The term "red tape" originates from the practice of binding official documents with red tape, which was common in the past. Nowadays, it is used more broadly to refer to bureaucratic delays and inefficiencies in government processes.

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Checks and balances was a feature of the pre-colonial political administration of the Yoruba people in what is now modern-day Nigeria. The Yoruba political system was made up of several city-states, each with its own ruler, council of chiefs, and assembly of the people. The system was designed to ensure that no single individual or group had too much power or authority. The ruler, known as the Oba, was advised by a council of chiefs, who were appointed based on their knowledge and experience. The assembly of the people also had a role to play in decision-making, and could challenge the authority of the Oba if they felt he was not acting in the best interests of the community. This system of checks and balances helped to prevent abuse of power and ensure that decisions were made in the best interests of the people. It also helped to foster a sense of community and collective responsibility, as everyone had a stake in the decision-making process. Overall, the pre-colonial Yoruba political system was characterized by a strong sense of tradition, respect for authority, and a commitment to ensuring that power was not concentrated in the hands of a few individuals. The system of checks and balances played a crucial role in ensuring that these values were upheld.

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The factor that may work against a representative system of government is the "Rigging of elections". In a representative system of government, the citizens elect representatives who will represent their interests in government. However, if the election process is not free and fair, and the election is rigged, the representatives may not truly represent the interests of the citizens who elected them. Rigging of elections is a form of electoral fraud in which the election process is manipulated or interfered with to achieve a desired outcome. This undermines the credibility of the election and ultimately undermines the legitimacy of the representative system of government.

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The administrative head of a public corporation in Nigeria is the Managing Director. The Managing Director is responsible for the overall management of the corporation and is accountable to the Board of Directors. The Managing Director is usually appointed by the Board of Directors and is responsible for the day-to-day operations of the corporation. The Managing Director is also responsible for implementing the policies and directives of the Board of Directors and for ensuring that the corporation is run in an efficient and effective manner.

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The bill introduced by a member of the legislature is known as a private member's bill. This means that the bill is not introduced by a member of the executive branch of government or by a political party, but rather by a member of the legislature who is not a member of the government or the ruling party. Private member's bills are often introduced by individual legislators who are passionate about a particular issue or who believe that a particular law needs to be changed. Private member's bills are an important aspect of the legislative process because they allow individual legislators to have a say in the laws that are being passed. However, it is important to note that private member's bills are often less likely to become law than bills introduced by the government or ruling party, as they may face opposition from these groups. Nonetheless, private member's bills can still be influential in shaping public policy and bringing attention to important issues.

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The most representative organ of the United Nations Organization (UNO) is the General Assembly. The General Assembly is composed of representatives from all member states, and each member state has one vote. The General Assembly is responsible for a wide range of activities, including setting the UN's budget, appointing non-permanent members to the Security Council, and electing members to other UN bodies such as the International Court of Justice. The General Assembly also serves as a forum for member states to discuss and coordinate on global issues such as peace and security, development, and human rights.

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In the feudal system, the lowest class of people were the serfs. Serfs were peasants who were legally bound to work on the lord's land in exchange for protection and the right to cultivate their own land. They were not slaves, but they were also not free to leave the lord's land without permission. Serfs were considered the lowest class because they had little to no social mobility and were heavily dependent on their lord for their livelihoods. They were required to give a portion of their crops and labor to the lord, and had to work long hours in often difficult and dangerous conditions. Serfs were not allowed to own land or property, and were generally poor and lived in small, cramped homes. Despite their lowly status, serfs were a crucial part of the feudal system as they provided the labor necessary to maintain the lord's estate and ensure a steady food supply.

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In the federation of Nigeria, states are equally represented in the Senate. The Senate is one of the two chambers of the National Assembly, which is the legislative arm of the government at the federal level in Nigeria. Each state in Nigeria is represented by three senators in the Senate, regardless of the size or population of the state. This system of representation is designed to ensure that each state has an equal voice and influence in the national legislative process, regardless of its size or population.

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The programme of a political party is known as its manifesto. A manifesto is a public declaration of a party's principles, policies, and goals for governance if they are elected into office. It is a document that outlines the party's position on various issues and how they intend to address them. A political party's manifesto can cover a wide range of issues such as social welfare, education, healthcare, foreign policy, security, and economic development. A manifesto is an important tool for political parties because it helps to communicate their message and vision to the public, and it serves as a basis for holding them accountable for their promises if they are elected into office. Political parties often launch their manifestos during election campaigns, and they use them as a means of convincing voters to support them. Overall, a political party's manifesto is a key aspect of its identity and its approach to governance. It reflects the party's values and priorities, and it is an important reference point for voters in deciding which party to support.

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The factor that may work against a representative system of government is the "rigging of elections". Rigging of elections refers to the manipulation of election results through various means, such as ballot stuffing, voter intimidation, vote buying, falsification of results, and so on. When elections are rigged, the elected representatives may not truly reflect the will of the people, and the government may not be accountable to the people. This can lead to a breakdown of democracy and loss of trust in the representative system of government. On the other hand, the other factors mentioned in the options may support a representative system of government. For instance, high literacy of the electorate can enable them to make informed decisions while the introduction of universal adult suffrage can allow all citizens to participate in the electoral process. An independent electoral commission can ensure free and fair elections, which is a fundamental aspect of a representative system of government.

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An order directing a detainee to be brought before the court is called "habeas corpus". This is a legal term that means "you shall have the body". Habeas corpus is a legal action that allows a person who is detained or imprisoned to challenge the legality of their detention. It is a fundamental right in many countries and is considered a safeguard against arbitrary detention. The purpose of the writ of habeas corpus is to ensure that a person's detention is lawful and that they are not being held without sufficient cause or due process. When a writ of habeas corpus is issued, the person who is being detained must be brought before a court or judge, and the authorities must show cause as to why they are being detained. If the detention is found to be unlawful, the person must be released immediately.

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The Nigerian federal legislature is called the National Assembly. The National Assembly is the legislative arm of the Nigerian government, and it is responsible for making laws, controlling government spending, and providing oversight to the executive branch of government. The National Assembly consists of two chambers: the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Senate is the upper chamber, and it is made up of 109 members, while the House of Representatives is the lower chamber, and it consists of 360 members. Together, the Senate and the House of Representatives make up the National Assembly, which is responsible for representing the people of Nigeria and ensuring that their interests are protected.

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The traditional rulers appointed by the British to implement Indirect Rule in Eastern Nigeria were called warrant chiefs. The British colonial government introduced the Indirect Rule system as a way to govern their colonies indirectly through local traditional rulers. The warrant chiefs were selected and appointed by the British authorities and given the authority to administer local affairs in their respective areas. They were expected to follow British directives and policies and were accountable to British colonial officers. The warrant chiefs replaced the existing traditional rulers, and their appointment was often met with resistance from the local population who saw them as illegitimate.

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Authoritarianism is least inherent in democracy. Democracy is a form of government in which power is held by the people, who exercise it directly or through elected representatives. In a democratic system, the people have the power to choose their leaders and to hold them accountable for their actions. This means that the government is accountable to the people, and not the other way around. In contrast, authoritarianism is a form of government in which power is concentrated in the hands of a single individual or a small group of individuals. In an authoritarian system, the government is not accountable to the people and there are often few or no checks on the power of the ruling elite. While democracy is not immune to authoritarian tendencies, it is designed to limit the power of any one individual or group and to ensure that power is distributed among different branches of government. This makes it less likely for authoritarianism to take hold in a democratic system. Feudalism and monarchy, on the other hand, are both forms of government that concentrate power in the hands of a single individual or group. Fascism is a political ideology that emphasizes authoritarianism and the supremacy of the state over individual rights and freedoms. As such, it is inherently authoritarian in nature. In summary, while no form of government is immune to authoritarian tendencies, democracy is designed to limit the concentration of power and ensure that the government is accountable to the people. This makes it less likely for authoritarianism to take root in a democratic system.

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Diplomatic immunity is a limitation to the rule of law. It grants certain privileges and immunities to diplomats, such as immunity from prosecution and immunity from civil lawsuits. While diplomatic immunity serves an important purpose in protecting diplomats from harassment or persecution while they are carrying out their duties, it also creates a potential for abuse. Diplomats who engage in criminal or unethical behavior may be shielded from prosecution or punishment, which can undermine the rule of law and the principles of justice and accountability. Therefore, diplomatic immunity can be seen as a limitation to the rule of law because it allows some individuals to operate outside the scope of the legal system, potentially avoiding consequences for their actions. However, it is important to note that diplomatic immunity is a necessary feature of international relations and serves important diplomatic and political purposes.

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Freedom of speech is a fundamental human right that allows individuals to express their opinions and ideas without fear of censorship or punishment. However, this right may be limited in certain circumstances. One such circumstance is when the speech in question endangers the security of the state. In situations where speech is likely to incite violence or cause harm to individuals or groups, the government may be justified in restricting that speech to protect the safety of its citizens. Additionally, if the speech is used to cause embarrassment to the judiciary, it may also be limited in order to maintain the integrity of the judicial system. It is important to note that these limitations on freedom of speech must be carefully balanced against the right to free expression, and should only be applied when absolutely necessary to protect the safety and well-being of society as a whole.

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The French policy of Assimilation in West Africa was a form of direct rule. It was a colonial policy implemented by the French in their West African colonies, which aimed to assimilate the local population into French culture and civilization. The policy was based on the belief that French culture was superior to African culture, and that the Africans needed to be "civilized" and brought up to the French standard. Under this policy, the French appointed French officials to govern the colonies directly, without involving the local people in the decision-making process. French law and culture were imposed on the colonies, with the aim of eradicating African cultural practices and promoting French language, culture, and values. This policy was enforced through a centralized bureaucracy, with French officials in charge of all aspects of colonial governance, including education, law, and administration. The policy of Assimilation was different from Indirect Rule, which was implemented by the British in their African colonies. Under Indirect Rule, local rulers were given some autonomy to govern their own people, as long as they remained loyal to the British colonial authorities. In contrast, under the French policy of Assimilation, the French authorities directly governed the colonies without any local autonomy. Overall, the French policy of Assimilation was criticized for being authoritarian and culturally insensitive, and for failing to recognize the value of local African cultures and traditions.

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The grant of the right to vote is called "enfranchisement". Enfranchisement is the act of giving someone the right to vote in political elections. This is an important aspect of democratic societies, as it allows citizens to participate in the political process and have a say in the decisions that affect their lives. The opposite of enfranchisement is "disqualification" or "prohibition," which means being denied the right to vote due to certain restrictions or legal barriers.

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In a federation, the powers allocated to the central government are contained in the Exclusive Legislative List. This list outlines the areas in which only the central government can make laws, such as defense, foreign affairs, immigration, currency, and telecommunications. These powers are exclusive to the central government, and cannot be exercised by the regional governments. The Exclusive Legislative List is an important feature of federalism, as it ensures that there is a clear division of powers between the central and regional governments. It prevents any overlap or duplication of powers, which could lead to confusion and conflict. However, it is worth noting that in some federations, there may also be a Concurrent Legislative List, which outlines areas in which both the central and regional governments can make laws. This allows for greater flexibility and collaboration between the different levels of government. Overall, the Exclusive Legislative List is a crucial element of federalism, as it helps to ensure that the central government has the powers it needs to maintain the unity and integrity of the federation, while also respecting the autonomy and authority of the regional governments.

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One of the factors that may work against a representative system of government is the rigging of elections. Rigging of elections involves manipulating the electoral process to produce results that do not reflect the will of the people. This undermines the legitimacy of the representative system of government because representatives are not truly elected by the people. It can also erode public trust in the democratic process and lead to social unrest. The other options mentioned - high literacy of the electorate, the introduction of universal adult suffrage, and independent electoral commission - generally work in favor of a representative system of government as they promote greater participation and representation of the people.

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The appointment, promotion, and discipline of civil servants are the responsibility of the Civil Service Commission. The Civil Service Commission is a government body that is responsible for the management and regulation of the civil service in a country. It ensures that the civil service operates efficiently, effectively, and in compliance with the rules and regulations governing its operations. One of the key functions of the Civil Service Commission is to oversee the recruitment, appointment, and promotion of civil servants. It ensures that the selection process is fair, transparent, and based on merit. It also ensures that civil servants are promoted based on their performance and qualifications. Another important responsibility of the Civil Service Commission is to discipline civil servants who have violated the rules and regulations governing their conduct. The commission ensures that disciplinary procedures are followed fairly and that appropriate sanctions are applied to civil servants who have engaged in misconduct or negligence. Overall, the Civil Service Commission plays a crucial role in ensuring that the civil service operates effectively and efficiently. It ensures that civil servants are recruited, promoted, and disciplined in a fair and transparent manner, and it helps to maintain the integrity of the civil service.

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The military regime that played a prominent role in the liberation of colonized African states is the Murtala/Obasanjo regime. This regime, which came into power through a military coup in 1975, was committed to promoting Pan-Africanism and supporting the struggle for independence in African countries that were still under colonial rule. Under the leadership of General Murtala Mohammed and later General Olusegun Obasanjo, the Nigerian government provided military and financial support to liberation movements in countries such as Angola, Mozambique, and Zimbabwe. The regime also took steps to strengthen Nigeria's own independence and influence on the African continent, such as by establishing the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and hosting the second summit of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) in 1977. While other military regimes in Nigeria may have also had some involvement in African liberation movements, it was the Murtala/Obasanjo regime that had the most significant impact in this regard.

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The correct answer is "The type of government in a state". The expression of public opinion can be limited by the type of government in a state, particularly in authoritarian regimes where free speech and expression are restricted. In such systems, the government controls the media and censors information to prevent the spread of dissenting opinions. In democratic systems, freedom of expression is protected by law, and citizens are encouraged to express their opinions through various means such as the media, protests, and elections. The establishment of private media organizations, high literacy rates, and religious beliefs may also affect the expression of public opinion, but they are not factors that limit it in the same way that government censorship can.

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In the pre-colonial Hausa/Fulani system, the appointment of an Emir in the Caliphate was approved by the Sultan of Sokoto and Emir of Gwandu. The Caliphate was a large Muslim state in West Africa, which was established in the early 19th century by Uthman dan Fodio. The Emirs were traditional rulers who served as political and religious leaders of the various Emirates within the Caliphate. The appointment of an Emir was a significant decision, and the Sultan of Sokoto and Emir of Gwandu had the authority to approve or reject the appointment. This ensured a centralized system of governance in the Caliphate, where the Emirs were accountable to the Sultan and worked together to maintain law and order in the region.

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One of the sources of a country's constitution is judicial precedents. A constitution is a fundamental document that outlines the basic principles and laws that govern a country. Judicial precedents refer to the rulings of courts in previous cases that serve as a basis for deciding similar cases in the future. When a court interprets the constitution and issues a ruling, that ruling becomes a precedent that other courts can follow when deciding similar cases. In this way, judicial precedents can help shape the meaning and interpretation of a country's constitution. In addition to judicial precedents, other sources of a country's constitution can include legislative enactments, constitutional conventions, and historical documents. However, judicial precedents are an important source of constitutional law that can help ensure consistency and predictability in the application of a country's constitution.

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The rule of law refers to the principle that everyone, including individuals and government officials, is subject to and must follow the law. It implies that the law is supreme, and no one is above it, regardless of their status, wealth, or position. The rule of law also requires that the legal system be fair, impartial, and transparent in its application and that individuals have access to justice and legal remedies when their rights are violated. Therefore, option A, legality and impartiality, correctly describes the principle of the rule of law.

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The extent to which citizens regard the institutions, officials, and activities of government as right and acceptable is known as legitimacy. Legitimacy is the foundation of political authority and is derived from the consent of the governed. It reflects the degree of trust, confidence, and belief that citizens have in their government and its ability to serve their interests. Legitimacy is essential for stable and effective governance, as it enables the government to exercise authority without coercion or the use of force. It is important for citizens to have a sense of legitimacy in their government as it promotes the rule of law and reinforces the social contract between citizens and the state. Without legitimacy, the government's actions and decisions may be met with resistance and non-compliance, leading to instability and a breakdown of governance.

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After the Nigerian civil war, General Yakubu Gowon's regime embarked on a program of "rehabilitation, reconciliation, and reconstruction". This involved rebuilding the country's infrastructure, rehabilitating former soldiers and other war victims, and reconciling the different ethnic and regional groups that had been in conflict during the war. The focus was on restoring the country's unity and rebuilding its social, economic, and political structures, which had been severely damaged by the war. The program also involved the establishment of the National Youth Service Corps (NYSC), which aimed to promote national integration by sending young graduates to serve in different parts of the country for one year.

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One factor that may work against a representative system of government is the rigging of elections. When elections are rigged, the results are manipulated to favor a certain political party or candidate, rather than accurately reflecting the will of the electorate. This undermines the legitimacy of the representative system of government, as it erodes the trust of citizens in the democratic process and the ability of elected representatives to act on their behalf. Other factors, such as the introduction of universal adult suffrage and the establishment of an independent electoral commission, are generally seen as positive developments for representative systems of government, as they promote greater political participation and accountability. High literacy among the electorate can also be seen as a positive factor, as it enables citizens to make informed choices and engage in critical thinking about political issues.

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The acquisition of political power through hereditary means is a feature of monarchy. In a monarchy, a king or queen inherits the throne from their parents or family members and holds power over the country. This system is different from a democracy, where leaders are elected by the people. In a monarchy, the ruler's position is determined by their family lineage, and the right to rule is passed down through generations. Some monarchies have limited powers and serve mainly as figureheads, while others have more significant authority and make important decisions for their country.

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In a multi-party system, all shades of opinions and interests are adequately represented. A multi-party system is a political system in which multiple political parties have the capacity to gain control of government separately or in coalition with others. This allows for a diverse range of views and opinions to be represented, providing voters with a broader range of choices in elections. Each party may have its own distinct ideology, policies, and agenda, enabling voters to select the party that best aligns with their own beliefs and values. This can promote a healthy and vibrant democracy by encouraging political debate, diversity of ideas, and greater accountability from elected officials.

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An undesirable feature of capitalism is exploitation. In a capitalist system, businesses seek to maximize their profits by minimizing costs, including labor costs. This can lead to workers being paid low wages or working in poor conditions, and in some cases, being exploited. For example, companies may use child labor or force workers to work long hours without breaks. Exploitation can also occur in the form of unequal bargaining power, where corporations have more power than individuals or small businesses, leading to unfair contracts or prices. While capitalism has many benefits, exploitation is a major concern, and many people believe that regulations or other measures are needed to protect workers and ensure fair treatment.

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One of the problems facing the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) is that its member states do not have a common currency. This lack of a common currency has made trade and economic integration among member states more difficult, as businesses and individuals have to constantly exchange currencies and deal with fluctuating exchange rates. It also makes it more difficult for member states to coordinate their economic policies and implement a common trade policy. A common currency would help to promote regional trade and economic growth, as it would reduce transaction costs and promote stability in the financial system. Despite efforts to create a common currency, such as the introduction of the "ECO" currency in 2020, progress has been slow and some member states have been reluctant to give up their national currencies.

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The world organization that existed before the United Nations was the League of Nations. It was founded in 1920 after World War I with the aim of promoting international cooperation and resolving conflicts peacefully. However, the League of Nations failed to prevent the outbreak of World War II, which led to its dissolution in 1946. The United Nations was then established in 1945 as a replacement to the League of Nations, with the aim of promoting international peace, security, and cooperation. Unlike the League of Nations, the UN has been more successful in achieving its goals and has played a crucial role in resolving conflicts and addressing global challenges such as poverty, climate change, and human rights abuses.

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The system of voting on behalf of another person is known as voting by proxy. It is a mechanism where a person appoints someone else to cast their vote for them. This may occur for a variety of reasons, such as if the voter is unable to attend the polling station, or if they wish to delegate their vote to someone they trust to represent their interests. For example, a voter may be unable to attend a polling station due to illness or disability, and so they may appoint a family member or friend to cast their vote for them. Alternatively, a voter may wish to delegate their vote to a political party or interest group that they support. In this way, voting by proxy allows individuals to participate in the electoral process even if they are unable to cast their vote in person.

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In a federal system, the supreme authority is usually the Constitution. The Constitution defines the structure of the government, allocates powers between the central government and the state or regional governments, and provides a framework for protecting individual rights and freedoms. It is the highest law of the land and all other laws and actions of the government must be in line with its provisions. The Constitution also establishes the powers and limits of the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government, and sets the rules for their interactions. Therefore, the Constitution plays a pivotal role in a federal system and is considered the supreme law.

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Mussolini's fascism and Hitler's Nazism are good examples of totalitarianism. Totalitarianism is a political system where the state has complete control over all aspects of society, including the economy, politics, culture, and the lives of individual citizens. In such a system, the government exercises power through a single party and the suppression of opposition and dissent. Mussolini's fascism and Hitler's Nazism were characterized by centralized control, militarism, nationalism, and the suppression of individual liberties. They both sought to create a totalitarian state that would dominate and control all aspects of society. The fascist and Nazi regimes were known for their use of propaganda, censorship, and secret police to maintain control and suppress dissent. In summary, Mussolini's fascism and Hitler's Nazism were examples of totalitarianism, where the state had complete control over all aspects of society.

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An obligation of a citizen is a duty or responsibility that one is required to fulfill as a member of a society or country. Out of the options provided, "paying respect to the national flag" is an obligation of a citizen. This includes standing at attention during the national anthem, saluting the flag, and treating it with respect and dignity. The national flag is a symbol of the country and represents the values, traditions, and aspirations of its citizens. Paying respect to the national flag is a way of demonstrating patriotism and loyalty to one's country.

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The civil service differs from the public corporations in the following five ways:

(Any five contrasting points are acceptable.)

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The Organization of African Unity (OAU), founded in 1963, was guided by the following principles enshrined in its Charter:

1. Sovereign equality of all member states.
2. Non-interference in the internal affairs of member states.
3. Respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of each state and its inalienable right to independent existence.
4. Peaceful settlement of disputes by negotiation, mediation, conciliation or arbitration.
5. Unreserved condemnation of political assassination and subversive activities directed against member states.
6. Absolute dedication to the total emancipation of African territories still under colonial or minority rule.
7. Affirmation of a policy of non-alignment with regard to all power blocs.

These principles were designed to promote unity, solidarity, cooperation and the liberation of the African continent.

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Merits of democracy

1. Popular participation: It allows the people to take part in government through voting and other means, giving legitimacy to the government.
2. Protection of rights and freedoms: It safeguards the fundamental human rights and liberties of citizens.
3. Accountability and change of government: Rulers are accountable to the people and can be peacefully removed through periodic elections.

Demerits of democracy

1. Slow decision-making: Wide consultation and debate make the process of taking decisions slow and cumbersome.
2. Rule by the ignorant majority: Decisions may be based on the votes of an uninformed majority rather than on merit or competence.
3. Expensive to operate: Conducting elections, running the legislature and maintaining democratic institutions consume enormous public funds.

(Other valid points such as tyranny of the majority, and equality before the law, are acceptable.)

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The single (one) party system is a system in which only one political party is legally allowed to exist and contest for power. It is associated with the following problems:

1. Absence of opposition: There is no organised opposition to check the excesses of the ruling party, which encourages abuse of power.
2. Tendency towards dictatorship: With no rival party, leaders tend to become autocratic, intolerant and tyrannical.
3. Denial of choice: The electorate is deprived of the freedom to choose between alternative parties, candidates and programmes.
4. Suppression of fundamental rights: Freedoms of expression, association and the press are often curtailed to protect the ruling party.
5. Political stagnation: The absence of competition breeds complacency, corruption and inefficiency in government.
6. Personality cult: Power is often concentrated in one leader who is glorified beyond criticism.
7. Absence of accountability: Since the party cannot be voted out, the government is not truly answerable to the people.

(Any five of the above problems are acceptable.)

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The evolution of federalism in Nigeria between 1914 and 1954 may be traced through the following stages:

1. 1914 Amalgamation: Lord Lugard amalgamated the Northern and Southern Protectorates into one Nigeria. Although the country was formally united, the two parts were administered largely separately, sowing the earliest seed of regionalism.
2. 1922 Clifford Constitution: It introduced the elective principle and a Legislative Council for the South only; the North was still governed by proclamation, deepening the North-South divide.
3. 1946 Richards Constitution: This is regarded as the foundation of Nigerian federalism. It divided the country into three regions (Northern, Western and Eastern) and created Regional Houses of Assembly, though real power remained at the centre.
4. 1951 Macpherson Constitution: It increased regional autonomy by giving the regions their own legislatures and executive councils with law-making powers, moving the country closer to a federation, though it retained a strong quasi-unitary centre.
5. 1954 Lyttleton Constitution: This established Nigeria formally as a federation. Powers were shared between the central and regional governments through exclusive, concurrent and residual lists; the regions became self-governing in many respects. This marked the true beginning of federalism in Nigeria.

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Election is necessary in a democratic state for the following reasons:

1. Choice of leaders: It provides the machinery through which the people select their representatives and rulers.
2. Popular participation: It enables citizens to take part in the governance of their country by exercising their right to vote.
3. Legitimacy: A government that emerges through free and fair elections enjoys the consent and support of the governed, giving it the authority to rule.
4. Change of government: It offers a peaceful and orderly means of changing or retaining a government without resort to violence.
5. Accountability: The fear of losing the next election compels leaders to be responsible and responsive to the wishes of the electorate.
6. Political education: Election campaigns enlighten the people on issues, policies and the workings of government.
7. Expression of public opinion: It allows the people to pass judgement on the performance of the government and approve or reject its programmes.
8. Representation: It ensures that the different interests and sections of the society are represented in government.

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The colonial Governor was the chief representative of the British Crown in each West African colony. His functions included the following:

1. Chief executive: He was the head of the colonial administration and was responsible for the general government of the territory.
2. Representative of the Crown: He represented the British monarch and government and carried out imperial policy in the colony.
3. Law-making: He presided over the Legislative Council and could initiate, assent to or veto laws (ordinances); he could also legislate by proclamation.
4. Appointments: He appointed and controlled senior colonial officials and nominated members into the Legislative and Executive Councils.
5. Maintenance of law and order: He was responsible for internal security and controlled the police and armed forces in the colony.
6. Financial control: He supervised the preparation and execution of the colonial budget and controlled public revenue and expenditure.
7. Prerogative of mercy: He could pardon, reprieve or commute the sentences of convicted persons.
8. Reserve and veto powers: He could override the councils and use his reserve powers in matters he considered vital to imperial interests.
9. Reporting: He reported regularly to the Secretary of State for the Colonies in London.

Awọn alaye Idahun

Political parties have contributed to the constitutional development of Nigeria in the following ways:

1. Agitation for constitutional reform: Parties such as the NNDP, NCNC, AG and NPC pressed the colonial government for successive constitutional changes and greater self-government.
2. Participation in constitutional conferences: Party leaders attended the London and Lagos conferences (1953, 1954, 1957, 1958) that produced the constitutions leading to independence.
3. Demand for federalism: The parties, reflecting regional interests, pushed for a federal structure, which was entrenched in the 1954 Lyttleton Constitution and later constitutions.
4. Struggle for independence: Through their nationalist activities they hastened the negotiations that culminated in the 1960 Independence Constitution and the 1963 Republican Constitution.
5. Provision of personnel: Parties produced the political leaders and legislators who operated the constitutions and manned the regional and central governments.
6. Political education: Parties enlightened the citizens on constitutional issues, rights and the workings of representative government.
7. Formation of governments: By contesting and winning elections they formed the governments that gave practical effect to each new constitution.

(Any five of the above are acceptable.)

Awọn alaye Idahun

In a presidential system the President is both Head of State and Head of Government. As Head of Government he performs the following functions:

1. Chief executive: He directs and controls the execution and enforcement of the laws of the state.
2. Formation of the cabinet: He appoints ministers and other principal officers and assigns portfolios to them.
3. Determination of policy: He formulates and directs the general policy of the government at home and abroad.
4. Commander-in-Chief: He is the head of the armed forces and is responsible for the defence and security of the nation.
5. Conduct of foreign affairs: He appoints and receives ambassadors, negotiates treaties and represents the country in international matters.
6. Assent to bills: He signs bills passed by the legislature into law and may veto bills he does not approve.
7. Prerogative of mercy: He grants pardon, reprieve or commutation of sentence to convicted persons.
8. Preparation of the budget: He presents the annual budget and appropriation proposals to the legislature.
9. Appointments: He appoints judges, ambassadors and heads of parastatals, often subject to legislative confirmation.

Awọn alaye Idahun

Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations derive the following benefits from the organisation:

1. Economic and technical assistance: Members benefit from schemes such as the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation, trade preferences, loans and development aid.
2. Educational benefits: Members enjoy Commonwealth scholarships, staff and student exchange, and cooperation among Commonwealth universities.
3. Promotion of world peace and mutual understanding: Regular meetings such as the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM) provide a forum for consultation, settlement of disputes and friendly cooperation.
4. Sports and cultural cooperation: Members participate in the Commonwealth Games and share cultural links that foster unity among peoples.
5. Political and diplomatic support: Members receive collective support on the world stage and assistance with democratic elections through observer missions.
6. Common services: Members share a common language, similar legal and administrative systems, and cooperation in health, agriculture and communications.

(Any four of the above are acceptable.)

Awọn alaye Idahun

The 1963 Republican Constitution and the 1979 Constitution of Nigeria may be distinguished as follows:

(Any relevant contrasting points are acceptable.)

Awọn alaye Idahun

Indirect Rule worked fairly well in Northern Nigeria but was largely unsuccessful in the Eastern and parts of the Western regions for the following reasons:

1. Absence of centralised authority: The Igbo of the East and some Western communities had no powerful emirs or paramount chiefs; they practised a decentralised, republican form of government, so there was no ready-made traditional ruler to rule through.
2. Imposition of warrant chiefs: Where no chiefs existed the British appointed warrant chiefs who lacked traditional legitimacy; the people regarded them as strangers and resented their authority.
3. Abuse of power by warrant chiefs: Many warrant chiefs became corrupt and oppressive, extorting the people and provoking resistance such as the Aba Women's Riot of 1929.
4. Educated elite opposition: The more Westernised South produced educated nationalists who rejected the autocratic and undemocratic character of the system.
5. Cultural and political differences: The democratic, consultative traditions of the South were incompatible with the autocratic style on which Indirect Rule depended.
6. Ignorance of local customs: British officers did not fully understand the political institutions of the South, so their arrangements did not fit the people.

(Any relevant points are acceptable.)