WAEC SSCE - Government - 2018

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The system of administration referred to as "Indirect Rule" allowed traditional rulers, such as chiefs and kings, to continue ruling their communities in West Africa under the supervision of British officials. The British officials would provide guidance and support, but the traditional rulers would have the primary responsibility for maintaining order and enforcing laws within their communities. This approach was seen as a way for the British to effectively control the region with a minimum of resources and personnel, as they could rely on the existing systems of governance and authority. Indirect rule allowed the British to maintain control over the region while preserving some elements of local culture and tradition.

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The theory of separation of power is associated with Baron de Montesquieu. The theory holds that government should be divided into separate branches, each with its own distinct powers and responsibilities. This is done to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful or abusing its power. The three branches typically identified are the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. According to Montesquieu, the legislative branch should make the laws, the executive branch should enforce the laws, and the judicial branch should interpret the laws. By dividing power in this way, no single branch has too much power or control over the others, and each branch can serve as a check on the others. The idea of separation of powers has been influential in shaping modern democratic governments around the world, including in the United States, where it is enshrined in the Constitution.

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Akọwa Nkọwa

Universal adult suffrage does not militate against representative government in West Africa. Representative government refers to a form of government in which the citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf. Universal adult suffrage means that all adult citizens, regardless of race, gender, religion, or social status, have the right to vote in free and fair elections. Electoral irregularities, coup d'état, and gagged media are all factors that can undermine representative government in West Africa. Electoral irregularities, such as vote rigging or voter intimidation, can compromise the fairness and credibility of elections. Coup d'état, which is the violent overthrow of a government by the military or other groups, can replace elected representatives with authoritarian leaders. Gagged media, which refers to the suppression of free speech and press, can limit citizens' access to information and curtail their ability to hold their elected representatives accountable. In contrast, universal adult suffrage ensures that all citizens have an equal say in the selection of their representatives, promoting the legitimacy of the government and the representation of diverse interests. As such, it does not militate against representative government in West Africa, but rather supports it.

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The fundamental law of a country refers to its Constitution. A Constitution is a set of rules and principles that outlines how a country is governed. It establishes the structure of government, defines the rights and responsibilities of citizens, and sets out the powers of the different branches of government. It is considered the highest law of the land and takes precedence over other laws and regulations. Simply put, the Constitution is the blueprint for how a country operates and is considered the cornerstone of a country's legal and political system.

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A government does not always provide all the needs of its citizens. While governments have a responsibility to provide basic services such as healthcare, education, and infrastructure, it is not always possible for them to meet all the needs of every individual in their society. The reality is that resources are limited and governments must prioritize their spending to ensure that the most essential needs are met. Additionally, some needs may not be the responsibility of the government, but rather of individuals or private organizations. So, while it is important for governments to strive to meet the needs of their citizens as much as possible, it is not always feasible for them to do so.

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A state is more permanent than a government. A state refers to a geographic region with a defined territory, population, and government. It is a political entity that has a permanent existence and is recognized by other states. On the other hand, a government is the set of institutions and individuals who hold the power to make and enforce laws within a state. While governments can change frequently through elections or other means, the state itself remains constant. Therefore, the state provides a permanent framework for the government to operate within, and the government may change over time while the state remains the same.

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One reason for the adoption of indirect rule in British West Africa was to assimilate the indigenes. Indirect rule was a system of colonial administration that involved using local traditional rulers and institutions to govern the colonies on behalf of the British colonial authorities. The British colonial authorities realized that governing the colonies directly with British officials would be expensive and difficult, as they would need to recruit and train large numbers of British officials to administer the colonies. Instead, they opted for indirect rule, which allowed them to save on costs and also gave the local rulers a sense of participation in the governing process. Furthermore, indirect rule allowed the British to assimilate the indigenes by preserving and using their traditional structures of governance, which would not have been possible if they had implemented direct rule. This helped to maintain social stability and reduce resistance to British rule. In summary, the adoption of indirect rule in British West Africa was primarily aimed at assimilating the indigenes and using their traditional rulers to govern the colonies on behalf of the British colonial authorities.

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Yes, judicial review is a mechanism for checking the arbitrary use of power. Judicial review refers to the power of courts to review and potentially strike down actions taken by the legislative or executive branches of government. This allows courts to ensure that the actions of government officials are consistent with the Constitution and other laws, and that they do not exceed the limits of their authority. In particular, judicial review is an important mechanism for checking the arbitrary use of power by government officials. It allows the courts to serve as a check on the power of the other branches of government and to prevent them from infringing on the rights and freedoms of individuals. While judicial review can be used to address a range of issues, such as electoral malpractices and military adventures, its primary purpose is to ensure that those in power are held accountable and that they are acting within the bounds of the law.

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One factor that can lead to the collapse of a confederal state is a weak central government. In a confederal state, the central government has limited powers and relies on the cooperation of the constituent states. If the central government is weak and unable to provide for the common defense or enforce laws, it can lead to a breakdown in order and the collapse of the confederation. Without a strong central government, the constituent states may become more autonomous and act in their own self-interest, leading to conflict and division within the confederation. Ultimately, the absence of a strong central government can undermine the stability and coherence of the confederation, leading to its collapse.

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Both political parties and pressure groups perform the function of interest aggregation and articulation. Interest aggregation and articulation refers to the process of bringing together the diverse interests and opinions of different groups in society and giving voice to those interests and opinions. Political parties and pressure groups both play a role in this process by representing the views of specific groups of people and advocating for those views in the political arena. For example, a political party may represent the interests of a particular demographic, such as workers or rural residents, while a pressure group may represent the interests of a particular cause, such as environmental protection or animal rights. Both political parties and pressure groups aim to influence the decisions of policymakers and bring about change on behalf of the groups they represent.

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The country's constitution cannot be derived from party manifestoes. A party manifesto is a document that outlines the policies, goals, and promises of a political party before an election. It is not a legally binding document and does not have the authority to form the basis of a constitution. On the other hand, judicial precedents, customary sources, and statutory sources are all valid sources for deriving a country's constitution. Judicial precedents refer to the decisions made by the courts in interpreting and applying the law. These decisions can establish legal principles and rules that become part of the country's legal system and, in turn, contribute to the development of the constitution. Customary sources refer to the traditional practices and customs of a community, which have been followed for a long time and have become accepted as a norm. These customs can also contribute to the development of the constitution by providing guidance on how the country should be governed. Statutory sources refer to laws enacted by the legislature, such as the constitution itself, other constitutional laws, and ordinary laws. These laws provide the legal framework for the country's governance and form the basis of the constitution.

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One reason for the failure of the assimilation policy in French West Africa was the refusal of Africans to be culturally colonized. The policy aimed to make the African colonies more like France and to make the people living in these colonies adopt French culture and customs. However, many Africans did not want to give up their own cultural traditions and ways of life, and resisted the efforts of the French to assimilate them. This resistance made it difficult for the French to fully implement the assimilation policy and contributed to its eventual failure.

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The establishment of a local government is meant to bring government closer to the people. It serves as a platform for grassroots governance where elected representatives are responsible for the provision of basic amenities and services within a particular locality. These basic amenities may include waste disposal, street lighting, water supply, road construction, and other essential services that directly affect the people within the community. The establishment of local governments helps to ensure that the voices of citizens are heard, and their needs and concerns are addressed. Building churches and mosques is not the primary purpose of a local government, although it may provide support for religious organizations where necessary. Curb corruption in society is also an essential goal of local government, but it is not the only purpose. Local governments are tasked with the responsibility of promoting accountability, transparency, and good governance in the provision of services to the people. Lastly, promoting political apathy is not a goal of local government. On the contrary, it is meant to encourage citizens to participate in the governance process and become active stakeholders in the development of their communities.

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An electoral system which allows party members to elect candidates for elective offices is called a primary election. In this system, voters who are members of a political party participate in an election to select their preferred candidate to represent the party in a general election. The primary election process serves as a means for political parties to select the most popular candidate to represent them in a general election. It is often used in countries like the United States, where political parties play a significant role in the electoral process. In a primary election, voters have the opportunity to choose from a range of candidates who belong to the same political party. The candidate with the highest number of votes is selected as the party's representative in the general election. By-elections, on the other hand, are special elections held to fill a vacant elective position that occurs during the term of office. General elections are held to elect representatives to various offices at the federal, state, or local government level. A direct election is a system where voters directly elect their representatives to office, without any intermediate selection process.

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The principle of separation of powers becomes meaningful when it is linked with the concept of checks and balances. The separation of powers refers to the division of governmental authority into three separate branches - the legislative, the executive, and the judiciary. Each branch is assigned specific functions, and no branch is allowed to interfere with the functioning of the other branches. This separation ensures that no single branch of government becomes too powerful and that the citizens' rights are protected. However, this separation alone may not be enough to prevent any one branch from becoming too dominant. That's where the concept of checks and balances comes into play. Checks and balances mean that each branch of government has the power to check the other branches' powers and prevent any abuse of power. For example, the legislative branch can pass laws, but the executive branch can veto those laws. The judicial branch can strike down laws that it deems unconstitutional. In summary, the separation of powers ensures that no single branch of government becomes too powerful, while checks and balances ensure that each branch can check the other's powers and prevent any abuse of power.

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Among the four options, mass media plays the most significant role in shaping public opinion. Mass media includes various forms of communication, such as television, radio, newspapers, and the internet, that reach a large audience. These platforms provide information and shape public opinion by controlling what people see, read, and hear. Mass media has the power to influence the public's perception of events, issues, and even individuals. Through the selective presentation of news and entertainment, mass media can influence the public's attitude towards various social and political issues, creating a shared perception among the audience. While the other options may also influence public opinion to some extent, their impact is limited compared to mass media. Pressure groups, for instance, target specific policy issues and cater to a specific group of people. College and universities may shape the opinion of students, but the effect may not be felt as widely. Peer groups, on the other hand, are influential to a particular demographic, but their effect is limited. Therefore, it can be concluded that mass media is the most influential agency in shaping public opinion due to its wide reach, selective presentation of news and entertainment, and the power to create a shared perception among the audience.

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The planning and formulation of government policies is first initiated at cabinet meetings. Cabinet meetings are meetings where members of the government's cabinet, which is the group of senior officials responsible for running the country, come together to discuss and make decisions on important government policies. These meetings allow for discussion and collaboration between the different members of the government, ensuring that all perspectives and opinions are taken into account when making important policy decisions.

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The agency responsible for investigating allegations of maladministration and punishing offending career officers in the executive branch is the Public/Civil Service Commission. This is an independent government body that is responsible for overseeing the administration of the civil service, which includes the hiring, promotion, and discipline of government employees. Its main role is to ensure that the civil service is run in a fair and efficient manner, and that public servants are held accountable for their actions.

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The United Nations (UN) is considered a successful organization because it has helped maintain peace and prevent the outbreak of another world war since its creation in 1945. The UN brings together all the member countries to work towards common goals, such as promoting peace and security, protecting human rights, and promoting sustainable development. Additionally, the UN provides a platform for countries to discuss and resolve international issues peacefully through diplomacy and negotiation, rather than resorting to war. This helps to maintain stability and security around the world, making the UN a vital player in maintaining global peace and security.

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A political system in which the state owns and controls the major means of production is known as socialism. In this system, the government is responsible for controlling and managing the production and distribution of goods and services, with the aim of ensuring equal distribution of wealth and resources among the population. This is different from capitalism, where private individuals own the means of production and the market determines the distribution of goods and services, and from feudalism, which was a political and social system in medieval Europe where lords owned the land and serfs worked on it. It is also different from fascism, which is a political ideology that emphasizes strong government control and nationalism.

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The factor that is not typically a direct cause of military intervention in West African states is the excessive control of public enterprise. While the control of public enterprises can be a contributing factor to economic mismanagement and corruption, it is not typically a direct trigger for military intervention. Military intervention in West African states is more often a result of factors such as election fraud, widespread corruption in high places, and gross mismanagement of the country's economy, which can lead to instability and a breakdown of the rule of law. In such situations, military intervention may be seen as necessary to restore stability and protect the population.

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To preserve individual liberties, the judiciary should consist of honest and impartial judges. The judiciary is a crucial component of any democratic system, as it serves as a check on the power of the executive and legislative branches of government. Judges must be impartial and independent in order to make fair and impartial decisions, without being influenced by political, economic, or other outside forces. This helps to ensure that individual rights are protected and that the rule of law is upheld. Additionally, the judiciary should not participate in partisan politics, as this could compromise its impartiality and ability to fairly uphold the law.

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During the colonial rule, traditional rulers had several limitations imposed on them by the colonial authorities. These limitations were aimed at consolidating colonial power and control over the indigenous populations. One of these limitations was that traditional rulers were not allowed to raise armed forces. This was done to prevent the traditional rulers from challenging the colonial authorities and to ensure that the colonial government maintained a monopoly on the use of force. Another limitation was that traditional rulers had no power to impose taxes. This was done to ensure that the colonial authorities had control over the economy and to prevent the traditional rulers from becoming too powerful. Additionally, traditional rulers had no power to install or dispose of a chief. This was done to prevent the traditional rulers from influencing the choice of chiefs in a way that could be detrimental to colonial interests. However, the statement "were no longer spiritual heads of the people" is incorrect as this was not a limitation imposed on traditional rulers under colonial rule. In fact, the colonial authorities often recognized and utilized the traditional rulers' spiritual authority to help maintain social order and control among the indigenous populations. In summary, traditional rulers were not permitted to raise armed forces, had no power to impose taxes, and had no power to install or dispose of a chief under colonial rule, but they were still recognized as spiritual heads of their people.

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Akọwa Nkọwa

The anonymity of civil servants means that they should not be praised or blamed publicly. Civil servants are government employees who work behind the scenes to carry out government policies and provide important services to the public. Because they work in the background, they are not meant to be in the public eye, and their work is not meant to be publicly credited or criticized. This anonymity helps ensure that civil servants are able to perform their duties objectively and free from political pressure or interference, and it helps maintain the impartiality and independence of the civil service.

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Citizens can seek redress against injustice from the state through the Ombudsman, Head of Civil Service, Civil Service Commission, or Titular Executive. The Ombudsman is an independent government official who investigates complaints made by citizens against the actions of the government or public services. They act as a mediator and seek to resolve complaints in a fair and impartial manner. The Head of Civil Service is responsible for the management and administration of the civil service. They can investigate complaints made by citizens against civil servants and take appropriate action to address any wrongdoing. The Civil Service Commission is an independent body that oversees the recruitment, promotion, and discipline of civil servants. They can investigate complaints made by citizens against civil servants and ensure that appropriate action is taken. The Titular Executive is the head of state, such as a president or monarch. They have the power to pardon or commute the sentences of individuals who have been wrongly convicted or imprisoned. Overall, these entities exist to ensure that citizens have a means to seek justice and hold the state accountable for any actions that violate their rights or freedoms.

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Nationalism prior to the Second World War was led by educated elites and chiefs. These were individuals who were well-educated and had positions of power and influence in their societies. They were often the ones who first recognized the need for independence from colonial rule and the desire to create a unified national identity. They would then use their education, positions, and resources to mobilize others and raise awareness about the issues faced by their country. Their leadership helped to bring people together and inspire them to work towards a common goal of independence and national unity.

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Indirect election is best described as "electoral college electing legislators." Indirect election is a process of electing representatives in which the citizens do not directly elect their representatives but instead elect a group of individuals who then elect the representatives. This group of individuals is often referred to as an electoral college. In indirect elections, citizens vote for a group of representatives who will then cast their votes on behalf of the citizens. This method is commonly used in countries where the population is too large to allow direct elections or where there are concerns about the ability of citizens to make informed decisions. Therefore, the option "electoral college electing legislators" is the best description of indirect election. The other options mentioned are not accurate descriptions of indirect election because they either refer to a specific group of people (only women or only adults) or suggest that the citizens themselves elect the legislators directly.

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The class that controls and supervises the activities of the executive class in the civil service is the administrative class. The administrative class is responsible for overseeing and managing the day-to-day operations of government agencies and departments. This includes ensuring that policies and programs are implemented effectively, efficiently, and in accordance with applicable laws and regulations. Administrative officials often hold positions of authority and influence within the government, such as directors, managers, and supervisors. They are typically responsible for making decisions that affect the allocation of resources, the hiring and training of personnel, and the delivery of services to the public. Overall, the administrative class plays a crucial role in maintaining the smooth functioning of government and ensuring that public services are delivered efficiently and effectively.

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The primary function of a parliament is making laws. This means that the parliament is responsible for creating, debating, and passing laws that govern the country. The parliament is made up of representatives who are elected by the people, and they are responsible for ensuring that the laws they create are in the best interests of the citizens they represent. While impeachment of the president, ratifying international treaties, and acting as an electoral college may all be functions of a parliament, they are not its primary function. The primary function of a parliament is to make laws that are necessary for the good governance of the country.

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Communist governments aim at distributing goods and services based on need and ability. This means that resources are allocated to individuals and communities based on their needs and their ability to contribute to society. The goal is to create a more equal society, where everyone has access to the basic necessities of life and opportunities to improve their standard of living. This approach is meant to eliminate economic inequalities and promote social justice. In a communist system, the government controls the means of production and distribution, and the focus is on meeting the needs of the people as a whole, rather than maximizing profits for a small group of individuals or corporations.

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The source of revenue for political parties that is not listed here is "tolls". Tolls refer to fees that are charged for the use of particular roads or highways. This source of revenue is typically collected by governments or private companies that own and maintain the roads, and it is not typically used to fund political parties. On the other hand, political parties can generate revenue through dues, grants, and donations. Dues are fees that party members pay to support the party, while grants are funds provided by governments or other organizations to support specific programs or initiatives. Donations are voluntary contributions made by individuals, businesses, or organizations to support the party. In summary, while dues, grants, and donations can all be sources of revenue for political parties, tolls are not typically used in this way.

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In a presidential system of government, the chief executive (usually called the President) is responsible to the electorate. This means that the President is ultimately accountable to the people who voted for him or her to be in office. The President is elected by the people through a democratic process, and he or she is expected to represent the interests of the people who elected him or her. The President must make decisions and take actions that reflect the will of the people, and must be able to answer to them for any failures or shortcomings in his or her performance. While the judiciary, monarch, and senate may all have important roles to play in a presidential system of government, the ultimate responsibility of the President is to the people who elected him or her.

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The political system in which the government controls every aspect of a citizen's life is called totalitarianism. In a totalitarian system, the government has complete power over the economy, media, education, and even personal beliefs and behaviors of its citizens. This type of government often uses force and censorship to maintain control and suppress dissenting opinions. Citizens have very little or no individual freedom or rights, and the government is typically run by a single party or leader who has complete control over decision-making.

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The basic purpose of setting up a state is to maintain law and order and provide a framework for the peaceful coexistence of its citizens. A state is created to establish and enforce rules and regulations that ensure the safety, security, and well-being of its people. The state has the authority to use force, if necessary, to protect its citizens and maintain law and order. While a state may also engage in promoting development and providing social facilities, these are secondary purposes that support its primary goal of maintaining law and order. Protecting foreign interests may also be a secondary purpose of some states, but this is not a universal purpose of all states.

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Akọwa Nkọwa

Public opinion refers to the collective views and beliefs of a group of people about a particular issue or topic. It can be measured through various methods, including surveys, polls, and the conduct of debates or discussions. Imposition of laws without any debate is not a valid method of measuring public opinion. This is because laws are created by lawmakers who are elected to represent the people's interests. Imposing laws without any debate or discussion would not provide an accurate representation of the public's views. The conduct of opinion is a valid method of measuring public opinion. This can be done through various means, such as online forums, social media platforms, and public meetings. These channels allow individuals to express their views and engage in discussions with others. General review is also a valid method of measuring public opinion. This involves analyzing media coverage, editorials, and other publications to gauge the public's views on a particular issue or topic. Finally, holding a referendum in a state is another valid method of measuring public opinion. This involves allowing the public to vote on a particular issue or proposal, and the result provides an accurate representation of the majority's views. In summary, public opinion can be measured through various methods, including the conduct of opinion, general review, and holding of a referendum. However, the imposition of laws without any debate is not a valid method of measuring public opinion.

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(a) Definition of a constituency

A constituency is a geographical or territorial area, with a defined population, into which a country is divided for the purpose of electing a representative or representatives into a legislative body. The people living in that area are the constituents who elect and are represented by the member.

(b) Four merits of the single-member constituency

1. Close representative-constituent relationship: Because only one person represents the area, the electorate know their representative personally and can hold him directly accountable.
2. Simplicity: The voter has to choose only one candidate, so the ballot is simple and easy to understand, reducing invalid votes among a largely illiterate electorate.
3. Easy and cheap to conduct/manage: Small single-member areas are easier and less expensive to administer, and results are quickly collated.
4. It produces a stable government: The system usually gives the winning party a clear working majority in the legislature, promoting strong and stable government.

(Others: it encourages a two-party system and makes it easy for the representative to know the needs of the area.)

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Five obstacles to the implementation of ECOWAS aims and objectives

1. Language and colonial differences: The division of member states into Anglophone, Francophone and Lusophone blocs breeds mutual suspicion and hampers cooperation.
2. Continued attachment to former colonial masters: Many Francophone states remain economically and politically tied to France, which weakens their commitment to the regional body.
3. Political instability: Frequent military coups, civil wars and insecurity in member states disrupt regional programmes and divert resources into peace-keeping (e.g. ECOMOG).
4. Similar (competitive) rather than complementary economies: Most members produce and export the same primary raw materials, so there is little to trade among themselves, limiting intra-regional commerce.
5. Inadequate funding and non-payment of dues: Member states often fail to pay their financial contributions, starving the community of the funds needed to run its programmes.

(Others: poor transport and communication links, protectionist trade barriers, and lack of a strong common currency.)

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(a) Definition of opinion poll

An opinion poll is a method of measuring or sampling the views of a selected section of the public (a representative sample) on a political, social or economic issue, and using those sampled views to predict or represent the opinion of the whole population.

(b) Four factors that make opinion polls unreliable in West Africa

1. High level of illiteracy: Many respondents cannot properly understand the questions asked, so their answers do not reflect informed opinion.
2. Poor and inaccurate statistical/census data: Without a reliable population register, pollsters cannot draw a truly representative sample.
3. Fear and suspicion: Many people are afraid to reveal their true political views to strangers, so they give false or evasive answers.
4. Inadequate funding and poor communication/transport infrastructure: Polls are costly and large parts of the region are hard to reach, so samples are too small or biased towards easily accessible urban areas.

(Others: influence of ethnicity and religion, dishonest or biased pollsters, and volatile, easily-changing opinions.)

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Five features of the Hausa/Fulani pre-colonial political system

1. Highly centralised system: Power was concentrated in an emirate structure headed by the Emir, unlike the more diffused Igbo system.
2. The Emir as head: The Emir was the political, administrative and spiritual head of the emirate. He was appointed by kingmakers from the ruling dynasty and enjoyed near-absolute authority.
3. Theocratic government based on Islam: The system was founded on Islamic religion and Sharia law; the Quran guided administration and justice, and the Emir was seen as protector of the faith.
4. A well-organised bureaucracy of titled officials: The Emir ruled with the help of appointed officials such as the Waziri (prime minister/adviser), Galadima (administrator), Madawaki (head of the army), Sarkin Dan Doka (police), Maaji (treasurer) and Alkali (judges).
5. An organised tax/revenue system: Taxes such as Zakat, Jangali (cattle tax), Kharaj and Jizya were collected to run the administration.
6. A judicial system based on Sharia: Justice was administered by Alkali courts applying Islamic law, with the Emir as the final court of appeal.

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(a) Three methods of acquiring citizenship

1. Citizenship by birth: A person automatically becomes a citizen because he was born within the country, or born of parents or grandparents who are citizens of that country.
2. Citizenship by descent: A person born outside the country acquires citizenship because one or both of his parents (or grandparents) are citizens of that country.
3. Citizenship by naturalisation: A foreigner (alien) who has lived lawfully in a country for the period fixed by law is granted full citizenship after satisfying the required conditions and taking an oath of allegiance.

(Registration/marriage and honorary citizenship are other accepted methods.)

(b) Two conditions an alien must satisfy before becoming a citizen of another country

1. He must have resided lawfully and continuously in the country for the minimum number of years prescribed by the constitution or immigration law.
2. He must be of good character, be of full age and sound mind, be able to contribute to the development of the country, and be willing to renounce his former nationality and swear an oath of allegiance to the new state.

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(a) Definition of society

A society is a large group of people who live together in a definite geographical area, share a common culture, interact with one another and are organised under a common system of authority and rules for their collective survival and welfare. It is an organised body of persons bound together by shared values, institutions and relationships within a defined territory.

(b) Features of a society

1. A group of people (population): A society is made up of a number of human beings living together; a single individual cannot form a society.
2. A definite territory: The people occupy a particular geographical area or location that they can call their own.
3. Common culture: Members share a common way of life, including language, customs, values, beliefs, norms and traditions that bind them together.
4. Social interaction and relationships: The people relate and interact with one another continuously, cooperating and depending on one another for their needs.
5. Organisation and structure: A society has an established pattern of organisation, with institutions such as the family, government, religion and the economy that regulate the behaviour of its members.
6. A system of authority and rules: There are recognised rules, laws, norms and authority that govern conduct and maintain order among the members.
7. Common interests and goals: Members pursue shared aims and interests, such as security, welfare and continuity, that promote their collective survival.
8. Continuity and permanence: A society persists over time, outliving individual members through reproduction and the transmission of culture to new generations.

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None

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Mechanisms to forestall military intervention in politics

1. Good and accountable governance: Civilian leaders should govern honestly, provide social amenities and manage the economy well so that the military finds no popular grievance to exploit as an excuse for a coup.
2. Free, fair and credible elections: Regular, transparent elections give power a legitimate source, removing the pretext that the government is illegitimate or imposed.
3. Strengthening of democratic institutions: Independent legislature, judiciary, electoral commission and free press should be built up to check the excesses of leaders and resolve crises constitutionally.
4. Professionalisation of the armed forces: Soldiers must be trained, well-equipped and re-orientated to be loyal to the constitution and to accept civilian supremacy over the military.
5. Improved welfare and discipline of soldiers: Good pay, allowances, housing and prompt promotion reduce discontent within the ranks that can lead to mutiny or coups.
6. Fight against corruption and injustice: Punishing corrupt officials and ensuring social justice removes the moral grievances that soldiers often cite when seizing power.
7. Civic and political education: Educating both the citizens and the military on the value of democracy and the dangers of military rule discourages support for coups.

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Five functions of the President under the 1989 Constitution of Nigeria

The 1989 Constitution established an executive presidential system in which the President was both Head of State and Head of Government. His major functions included:

1. Chief executive: He was responsible for the day-to-day administration of the country and the execution of the laws made by the National Assembly.
2. Appointment of principal officers: He appointed ministers, ambassadors, judges of the superior courts and other top public officials, subject to confirmation by the Senate.
3. Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces: He controlled the army, navy and air force and was responsible for the defence and internal security of the nation.
4. Conduct of foreign affairs: He represented Nigeria in relations with other states, received foreign envoys, negotiated treaties and signed international agreements.
5. Legislative role (assent and veto): He signed bills passed by the National Assembly into law, could withhold assent (veto), and could issue executive orders and proclaim emergencies.

(Others: exercise of the prerogative of mercy, preparation and presentation of the national budget, and delivering the state-of-the-nation address.)

Akọwa Nkọwa

(a) Meaning of proto-nationalism

Proto-nationalism refers to the earliest, pre-political phase of nationalist feeling in colonial West Africa, roughly before the First World War. It was the mild, moderate agitation by an educated elite who did not demand independence or the overthrow of colonial rule, but only sought reforms, fair treatment, greater African participation in the colonial administration, and the protection of African rights within the colonial system.

(b) Four features of proto-nationalism

1. It was moderate and loyalist: Its leaders accepted colonial rule and only asked for reforms, not for self-government or independence.
2. It was elitist: It was led by a small group of educated professionals (lawyers, doctors, clergy, journalists) and did not involve the ordinary masses.
3. It was reformist in method: It used peaceful, constitutional means such as petitions, newspapers, delegations and resolutions rather than mass action or violence.
4. It was largely urban and cultural: It was centred in the coastal towns and concerned with cultural pride, protection of land and defence of African rights rather than mass mobilisation.