WAEC SSCE - Government - 1995

Maelezo ya Majibu

A country is most likely to have a good government if it has a good constitution and good operators. A good constitution provides the framework for how the government should function and ensures that power is distributed appropriately, while good operators refer to the people who run the government, such as elected officials and civil servants. A good government requires a balance between these two factors, as a good constitution alone cannot ensure a good government without competent and ethical operators, and good operators cannot overcome a poorly designed or corrupt constitution. Legitimacy and military support may also be important factors, but they are not sufficient on their own to guarantee a good government.

Maelezo ya Majibu

Maelezo ya Majibu

After the Nigerian Civil War, the major policy of General Gowon's administration was the policy of "Reconstruction, Reconciliation, and Rehabilitation". The aim of this policy was to rebuild the war-torn regions of Nigeria, promote national unity, and reintegrate the Igbo people back into Nigerian society. The policy involved the reconstruction of destroyed infrastructure, the rehabilitation of displaced persons, and the promotion of economic growth and development in the affected regions. The policy was aimed at addressing the effects of the war and restoring stability to the country.

Maelezo ya Majibu

One of the modern principles of government found in the traditional political system of Yoruba is that of "checks and balances". This principle involves a system of ensuring that no one person or group in power becomes too powerful and tyrannical. In Yoruba tradition, power is shared between different groups such as the king (Oba), council of chiefs (Oyo Mesi), and the people (Omo Oduduwa) to ensure a balance of power. This is achieved through various checks and balances, including the ability of the council of chiefs to limit the power of the king and the people's right to voice their opinions on issues affecting them. Overall, the principle of checks and balances is intended to prevent abuse of power and ensure a fair and just governance system.

Maelezo ya Majibu

The first political party in Nigeria was the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP). The party was founded in 1923 by Herbert Macaulay and was mainly dominated by people from Lagos and the Western region of Nigeria. The party played a significant role in the struggle for Nigeria's independence and provided the country's first national leaders, such as Sir Nnamdi Azikiwe, who later became the country's first President.

Maelezo ya Majibu

The correct option is "Tourism" because tourism is not an agent of political socialization. Political socialization is the process by which individuals learn and internalize the norms, values, beliefs, and behaviors of their political system. The agents of political socialization are the sources or channels through which political socialization occurs. They include the family, the mass media, peer groups, schools and universities, and religious institutions. However, tourism is not an agent of political socialization because it does not directly influence an individual's political beliefs or behavior.

Maelezo ya Majibu

The first military Head of State in Nigeria was Aguiyi-lronsi.

Maelezo ya Majibu

Maelezo ya Majibu

The goal which a state aspires to achieve in its relation with other states may be referred to as its "national interest". This refers to the set of objectives or goals that a state pursues in relation to its interactions with other states in the international system. These interests may include, among others, security, economic well-being, territorial integrity, and the promotion of certain values or ideals. National interest guides a state's foreign policy decisions and actions, and shapes the nature of its engagement with the international community.

Maelezo ya Majibu

Maelezo ya Majibu

When no candidate in an election receives an absolute majority (more than 50% of the votes), then a second round of voting may be held, called a second ballot. In the second ballot, only the two candidates with the highest number of votes in the first round are eligible to participate, and the winner is the candidate who receives the most votes in this second round. This is considered the most viable option when no absolute majority is obtained in the first round of elections, as it allows voters to choose between the two most popular candidates and ensures that the winner has the support of a majority of voters.

Maelezo ya Majibu

The feature of a public corporation is that it provides social services and amenities. Public corporations are created by the government to provide essential services to the public, such as transportation, energy, and communication services. They are usually not set up to make a profit but to provide services to the public at an affordable cost. Public corporations are run by a board of directors or a management team, with a Director-General as the head of general administration. They have a legal personality and can sue or be sued. However, public corporations are not headed by a minister as the administrative head.

Maelezo ya Majibu

A representative government can be established through a general election. In a general election, citizens are given the opportunity to vote for representatives who will represent their interests in government. This ensures that the government is accountable to the people and the people have a say in the decision-making process. Other options such as military coup, imposition, espionage, and apartheid do not establish a representative government. In fact, they may undermine the democratic process and limit the people's ability to have a voice in their government.

Maelezo ya Majibu

The statement "Powers are not constitutionally shared" is not true of a federal system of government. In a federal system, powers are constitutionally shared between the central government and the constituent units (such as states or provinces). This means that there are certain powers that are reserved for the central government, and others that are reserved for the constituent units. The constitution is written and rigid, and there are component units with their own governments and legislative lists. Additionally, both the federal and constituent units are independent and co-ordinate in a federal system of government.

Maelezo ya Majibu

The indirect rule system succeeded in Hausa/Fulani society because the existing administration favoured the system. Indirect rule is a form of colonial management in which local traditional rulers are used to rule the colonized people on behalf of the colonial government. In Hausa/Fulani society, the emirates and sultanates were already in existence, with a well-established system of governance that revolved around traditional rulers. The British colonial government, therefore, found it easier to adapt to the existing system of governance rather than imposing a new one. The emirs were made to rule on behalf of the British government, and this helped to maintain the traditional rulers' authority and the existing social structure, which the people were already familiar with. This is why indirect rule succeeded in Hausa/Fulani society.

Maelezo ya Majibu

Maelezo ya Majibu

Maelezo ya Majibu

Acquiring citizenship through naturalization is a legal process that involves fulfilling specific requirements, such as living in a country for a certain number of years, having a clean criminal record, and passing language and/or citizenship tests. In Nigeria, an alien who has lived in the country for twenty years and has shown evidence of a clear intention to continue residing in the country may apply for citizenship through naturalization. This process involves applying to the President through the Minister of Interior, and if the application is successful, the alien will be granted Nigerian citizenship and issued a certificate of naturalization. Therefore, the answer to the question is "naturalization".

Maelezo ya Majibu

ECOWAS, the Economic Community of West African States, was established primarily for economic advantages. It is a regional organization of 15 West African countries that aims to promote economic cooperation, regional integration, and development in the West African region. The organization seeks to achieve this by facilitating the free movement of people, goods, and services, promoting economic growth and development, and enhancing regional trade and investment. While ECOWAS has some political and social objectives, its main focus is on promoting economic cooperation and integration among its member states.

Maelezo ya Majibu

The independence of the Judiciary refers to the ability of judges to make decisions without fear of retribution or influence from other branches of government. It is important for the protection of human rights, democracy and the rule of law. Of the options given, the independence of the judiciary would not be enhanced if the President is also the Chief Judge. This is because the President, being the head of the executive branch, would have undue influence on the judiciary, which is a separate and independent branch of government. The judiciary must remain separate and independent from the executive and legislative branches of government for its decisions to be impartial and just.

Maelezo ya Majibu

Maelezo ya Majibu

The function of government is a broad topic that encompasses several duties and responsibilities. However, providing free medical service is not usually considered one of the functions of government. The primary responsibilities of government include maintaining peace and order, protecting citizens from malicious attacks, providing social services such as education and healthcare, and upholding the constitution of the country. Therefore, the correct option is "provision of free medical service" since it is not typically a responsibility of the government.

Maelezo ya Majibu

The limitation on the right to life refers to circumstances under which the right to life can be lawfully restricted. This limitation can be found in the case of a convicted person. A convicted person who has been found guilty of a serious crime may be sentenced to death, which means that their right to life has been restricted. Other circumstances that may limit the right to life include self-defense and the use of force by law enforcement officials in certain situations. These limitations are generally put in place to protect the safety and well-being of society as a whole. The right to life is a fundamental human right, but it is not an absolute right, and limitations can be imposed on it in certain circumstances.

Maelezo ya Majibu

Maelezo ya Majibu

Political sovereignty belongs to the people. Political sovereignty refers to the supreme power and authority that controls the actions and decisions of a state. In a democracy, the people hold the ultimate power to elect their leaders and make decisions on their behalf. The government derives its authority from the people, and it is accountable to them. Therefore, political sovereignty belongs to the people and is exercised through their elected representatives in the parliament or other organs of government.

Maelezo ya Majibu

The main criticism against pre-independence political parties in Nigeria was that they were not national in outlook. This means that these parties were not representative of the entire country and did not have a clear national agenda. They were largely dominated by regional or ethnic interests, which limited their ability to address national issues and promote unity among the diverse ethnic and religious groups in the country. This criticism was particularly relevant in the lead up to Nigeria's independence in 1960, as the country faced the challenge of forging a national identity and creating a system of government that could accommodate its diverse population.

Maelezo ya Majibu

A pressure group can be defined as a group of individuals or organizations that are organized around a common interest or goal and seek to influence public policy or decision-making. They can range from large organizations to small groups, and they may have different methods of advocacy, such as lobbying, protests, and media campaigns. The primary goal of a pressure group is to bring attention to their cause and push for government action or change in public policy.

Maelezo ya Majibu

A coalition government can be described as a government that is formed by two or more political parties, where no single party has won a majority of seats in the legislature or parliament. This means that the parties have to work together to form a government, usually by forming a formal agreement or coalition. The main purpose of a coalition government is to ensure that there is a stable government in power, where different parties work together to achieve common goals and objectives. The formation of a coalition government often involves negotiations between the different parties, where they have to agree on key policies and how power will be shared within the government.

Maelezo ya Majibu

A multi-party system is a political system in which several political parties compete for power and can win elections. One of the most important merits of a multi-party system is that it gives representation to the widest shades of opinion and interest. This means that people with different views, ideas, and interests have the opportunity to participate in the political process and have their voices heard through the political parties that represent them. In a multi-party system, smaller political parties also have the chance to gain political power and influence, as opposed to a two-party system where only the two major parties have a real chance of winning elections. This diversity of representation allows for a more inclusive and democratic political system, where different ideas and perspectives are debated and decisions are made through a more open and transparent process.

Maelezo ya Majibu

The goal which a state aspires to achieve in its relation with other states is referred to as "national interest." National interest refers to the set of goals that a state pursues to safeguard and advance its economic, political, and strategic objectives. It is the primary driving force that shapes a state's foreign policy and guides its interactions with other countries. The national interest may include protection of national sovereignty, promotion of economic growth and development, protection of citizens and property, maintenance of regional and global peace and stability, and enhancement of the state's international reputation and influence.

Maelezo ya Majibu

A necessary companion of the Rule of Law is the supremacy of the ordinary law. This means that every person, including those in government, is subject to the law and no one is above the law. The principle of the Rule of Law ensures that the law is clear, predictable, and applied equally to all individuals, regardless of their status or position in society. It promotes accountability, transparency, and fairness in the legal system, and helps to prevent abuse of power by those in authority. Therefore, the principle of the Rule of Law is essential for the protection of individual rights, the maintenance of order, and the promotion of a just and democratic society.

Maelezo ya Majibu

The decision to separate Lagos from the Western Region and make it a neutral Federal territory was taken at the 1954 constitutional conference. At the conference, a motion was moved to create a Federal territory in Lagos, which was approved and subsequently signed into law by the Governor-General of Nigeria. The decision was made due to the fact that Lagos was the federal capital of Nigeria and was seen as a neutral ground that could not be claimed by any of the regions. This decision helped to ease tensions between the regions and paved the way for the development of Lagos as a cosmopolitan city and the eventual creation of Lagos State.

Maelezo ya Majibu

The option that did not generate political crises in Nigeria is the adoption of Abuja as the new Federal Capital. This decision was made by the military government in 1976 and was not met with significant political opposition or unrest. The other options listed all resulted in political crises and upheaval in Nigeria at various times. For example, the motion for self-government in 1956 by Enahoro was met with strong opposition from the colonial government, which led to protests and demonstrations. The 1965 election in the Western Region was marked by violence and allegations of fraud, which led to the declaration of a state of emergency. The head count of 1962 was a census exercise that was marred by controversy and allegations of ethnic bias, which led to protests and violence. Finally, the 1964 General Elections were characterized by widespread violence and rigging, which led to a state of emergency and the eventual collapse of the First Republic.

Maelezo ya Majibu

The function of an Electoral Commission is to arrange and conduct elections. This involves preparing and maintaining a register of voters, designing and distributing ballot papers, providing polling stations and staff, counting and announcing election results. The Electoral Commission is responsible for ensuring that elections are conducted in a free, fair, and transparent manner, and that the electoral process is credible and acceptable to all stakeholders. They are also responsible for enforcing electoral laws and regulations, investigating complaints and electoral irregularities, and imposing penalties where necessary. The role of the Electoral Commission is crucial to the democratic process, as they ensure that the people have the opportunity to choose their leaders through free and fair elections.

Maelezo ya Majibu

The unique feature of monarchy is that the succession to the throne is hereditary. This means that the ruler or monarch is usually a member of a specific family or dynasty, and their position is passed down to their children or closest relative upon their death or abdication. Unlike other forms of government where leaders are elected or appointed based on their qualifications or popularity, in a monarchy, the position is determined by birthright. This system has been used in many countries throughout history, and some still exist today.

Maelezo ya Majibu

Maelezo ya Majibu

Maelezo ya Majibu

The option that is not a feature of capitalism is "Dictatorship of the proletariat". This is because the concept of dictatorship of the proletariat is associated with communism, not capitalism. Capitalism is an economic system characterized by free enterprise, private ownership of capital, minimal government intervention, and the pursuit of profit maximization by individuals or firms. In capitalism, the means of production are privately owned and operated for profit in a competitive market. Workers are free to sell their labor to the highest bidder and consumers are free to buy goods and services at the lowest prices.

Maelezo ya Majibu

Maelezo ya Majibu

Nigeria’s foreign policy came into the limelight at independence because only at independence do states proclaim their foreign policy principles. As a newly independent nation, Nigeria had to establish its foreign policy and diplomatic relations with other countries. It was a significant turning point for Nigeria's foreign policy because it was the first time Nigeria had the opportunity to articulate its foreign policy principles and determine its relations with other nations. Therefore, Nigeria's foreign policy was a crucial aspect of the country's independence, and it received widespread attention.

Maelezo ya Majibu

Maelezo ya Majibu

An election in which people vote for issues of public policy rather than candidates is known as a "referendum". In a referendum, citizens are presented with a specific question or issue, and they vote directly on the issue, rather than for individual candidates or political parties. Referendums are often used to decide on major policy decisions, such as constitutional amendments, changes to government policies, or even independence referendums. The results of a referendum are binding, and the outcome of the vote is used to inform future decision-making by the government or other governing bodies.

Maelezo ya Majibu

The correct answer is "be an indigene of the northern states." In the 1979 Presidential election in Nigeria, a candidate was required to be a Nigerian citizen by birth, be sponsored by a registered political party, have paid his income tax for three years as and when due, and be at least thirty-five (35) years of age. There was no requirement for the candidate to be an indigene of the northern states. Note: It is important to clarify that the requirements for Presidential candidates in Nigeria have changed over the years, so this answer only applies to the specific election mentioned in the question.

Maelezo ya Majibu

Between 1960 and 1980, Nigeria experienced all the listed systems of government except confederalism. Confederalism is a system of government in which several states or regional governments come together to form a loose union with a weak central government that has limited power. During this period, Nigeria started out as a federal system of government at independence in 1960, and continued as such until the civil war in 1967, when it briefly became a unitary system. After the civil war, Nigeria returned to a federal system in 1970, and remained so until the military coup of 1983, which ushered in a presidential system of government. Therefore, the correct answer is "confederal."

Maelezo ya Majibu

A political party is mainly interested in contesting elections to gain power. The primary objective of a political party is to win elections and form a government. Political parties exist to represent the interests and ideologies of their members and supporters and to offer them a platform to contest elections and seek political power. While political parties may engage in other activities such as policy formulation, public education, and opposition to the government in power, their main goal is to win elections and take control of the government.

Maelezo ya Majibu

The Organization of African Unity (OAU) has been instrumental in promoting the collective interests of African nations since its formation in 1963. However, like any organization, it has faced its share of challenges and has not been able to achieve all its goals. Of the options provided, the one that the OAU has failed to achieve is setting up an African High Command. An African High Command was proposed by Ghana's President Kwame Nkrumah in 1963 as a means of coordinating African military power to defend the continent against external aggression. However, the idea never gained traction among African leaders, and the OAU never established an African High Command. The other options listed are all areas in which the OAU made significant contributions. The OAU played a key role in mediating border disputes between member states, providing assistance to liberation movements in African countries, contributing to the economic and social development of member states, and providing a forum for the discussion of common problems.

Maelezo ya Majibu

Maelezo ya Majibu

The Executive is vested with the responsibility of initiating bills and recommending them to the legislature for consideration. The Executive branch is responsible for proposing and implementing laws in many democratic countries, including the United States and Nigeria. This branch is headed by the President or Governor, who is responsible for executing and enforcing the laws made by the legislature. The Executive branch works closely with the legislature to ensure that the laws proposed and enacted are in line with the government's policies and objectives.

Maelezo ya Majibu

An important feature of the traditional government in West Africa was the Council of Elders. The Council of Elders was made up of respected and experienced men who were responsible for making important decisions in the community. They were the custodians of the customs, traditions, and laws of the community and played an important role in resolving disputes and maintaining peace and order. They were also responsible for the selection and installation of chiefs and other leaders in the community. The Council of Elders was highly regarded and their decisions were respected by all members of the community.

Maelezo ya Majibu

The objective of the United Nations Organization (UNO) is to maintain international peace and security. The UNO was founded after World War II to prevent similar conflicts from occurring in the future. The organization works to promote peace and security by providing a platform for diplomatic communication and cooperation among member states, as well as by coordinating and supporting international efforts to prevent and resolve conflicts. Through various programs and initiatives, the UNO aims to address global issues such as poverty, inequality, and human rights abuses, in order to create a more peaceful and prosperous world.

Maelezo ya Majibu

The primary function of government in a state is to maintain law and order. This means that the government is responsible for ensuring the safety and security of its citizens by enforcing laws and regulations, preventing crime and punishing criminals. Other functions of government such as providing public goods and services, promoting economic growth, and protecting human rights are also important, but maintaining law and order is the most fundamental role of the government.

Maelezo ya Majibu

Maelezo ya Majibu

A basic principle of democracy is the rule by the majority and the right of the minority. This means that in a democratic system, decisions are made by the majority of the people through free and fair elections, and the rights of the minority are protected. This ensures that everyone has a voice in the decision-making process, and that the government is accountable to the people it serves. The other options presented in the question, such as rule by the wealthy few, a monarch, or two political parties, do not align with the basic principle of democracy as they do not prioritize the equal representation and protection of all citizens.

Maelezo ya Majibu

Maelezo ya Majibu

The legal source of political authority is power from the electorate. This means that the people who are governed give their consent to be governed and choose their leaders through a democratic process such as elections. The authority of elected leaders comes from the people they represent and they are accountable to the people for their actions. The other options listed are not legal sources of political authority. Power from the gun refers to the use of force or violence to gain political control, economic power refers to control over resources or wealth, minority power refers to a small group controlling political power, and self-imposed power refers to a person or group claiming authority without the consent of those they govern.

Maelezo ya Majibu

Maelezo ya Majibu

Disenfranchisement refers to the denial of the right to vote in an election. This can be due to various reasons such as not meeting the necessary qualifications or requirements, being convicted of certain crimes, or being denied voting rights due to discriminatory practices. It is the opposite of enfranchisement, which means granting or restoring the right to vote.

Maelezo ya Majibu

The 1954 Constitution of Nigeria made the country a true Federation because it provided for a division of functions between the center and the regions. This means that the central government and the regional governments were given specific areas of responsibility and authority to govern, which reduced the powers of the central government and allowed for greater autonomy and control by the regional governments. This was an important feature of a true federation, which allows for a sharing of power and authority between different levels of government.

Maelezo ya Majibu

Maelezo ya Majibu

(a) Meaning of representative government

Representative government is a system of government in which the people do not rule directly, but periodically elect a limited number of persons (representatives) to make laws, take decisions and govern on their behalf and in their interest. The representatives are accountable to the electorate and can be voted out at the next election if they fail to perform.

(b) Conditions essential for the existence of a representative government

1. Regular, free and fair elections: There must be periodic elections through which the people freely choose and change their representatives.
2. Universal adult suffrage: All qualified adult citizens must have the right to vote and to be voted for.
3. Existence of political parties: There must be two or more political parties offering the electorate a genuine choice.
4. Fundamental human rights: Freedom of speech, association, the press and assembly must be guaranteed so that opinions can be freely expressed.
5. Rule of law and an independent judiciary: Government and citizens must be subject to the law, with impartial courts to settle disputes.
6. An enlightened and politically conscious electorate: The citizens must be sufficiently educated to make informed choices and hold representatives accountable.
7. An independent electoral body: A neutral commission must organise credible elections.

Maelezo ya Majibu

Five major features of Nigeria's foreign policy since independence

1. Africa as the centrepiece: The liberation, unity and development of Africa have been the primary focus of Nigeria's foreign policy; Nigeria consistently supports African causes and gives priority to African affairs.
2. Non-alignment: Nigeria refused to align permanently with either the Western or the Eastern bloc during the Cold War, choosing instead to judge issues on their merits.
3. Support for the total liberation of Africa from colonialism and apartheid: Nigeria gave strong political, moral and material support to liberation movements and to the anti-apartheid struggle in Southern Africa.
4. Respect for the sovereign equality of all states and non-interference: Nigeria upholds the sovereign equality of states and non-interference in the internal affairs of other countries.
5. Promotion of regional and international cooperation: Nigeria is committed to good neighbourliness and to membership of and active participation in organisations such as ECOWAS, the AU (formerly OAU), the UN and the Commonwealth.

(Others: peaceful settlement of disputes, and promotion of the economic well-being of Nigerians.)

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Government as an academic field of study

As an academic field of study, Government is a branch of the social sciences that systematically studies the state, its institutions, and the way power and authority are acquired, organised, exercised and controlled in society.

In this sense, Government examines:

• The state and its origin, nature and purpose;
• The institutions of government, that is the legislature, the executive and the judiciary, and how they function;
• The processes by which political power is gained and used, such as elections, political parties, pressure groups and public opinion;
• The relationship between the government and the citizens, including rights, duties and the rule of law;
• The relationship between one state and others (international relations).

Studied this way, Government is closely related to Political Science; it is taught in schools and colleges, has its own concepts, theories and methods of enquiry, and equips the student to understand and participate intelligently in the political life of his society. It is therefore both a body of organised knowledge and a discipline that can be researched, taught and examined.

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Aims and objectives of the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC)

The NCNC was formed in 1944 under the leadership of Herbert Macaulay (President) and Nnamdi Azikiwe (Secretary). Its aims and objectives included:

1. To achieve self-government for Nigeria: Its central aim was to secure internal self-rule and eventual independence from British colonial rule.
2. To promote national unity: It sought to weld the various peoples and organisations of Nigeria into one united nation and to bury ethnic and sectional differences.
3. To secure political freedom and improve the political status of Nigerians: It worked for greater African participation in the government of the country.
4. To promote the economic, social and educational development of Nigerians: It aimed to raise the standard of living and expand educational opportunities for the people.
5. To defend and protect the rights of Nigerians: It fought against injustice, obnoxious colonial policies and the exploitation of the people.
6. To provide an avenue for the political education and enlightenment of the masses: It mobilised and organised various ethnic unions, trade unions and youth movements into a common nationalist front.

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Functions of the Secretary-General of the United Nations Organisation

1. Chief administrative officer: He is the head of the UN Secretariat and is responsible for the day-to-day administration of the organisation and its staff.
2. Implementation of decisions: He carries out the decisions and resolutions passed by the General Assembly, the Security Council and other organs of the UN.
3. Preparation of reports and the budget: He prepares the annual report on the work of the organisation and draws up its budget for approval.
4. Mediation and peace-keeping: He uses his good offices to mediate in international disputes and helps to prevent, manage and resolve conflicts, including organising peace-keeping missions.
5. Bringing threats to peace before the Security Council: Under Article 99 of the UN Charter, he may draw the attention of the Security Council to any matter that in his opinion threatens international peace and security.
6. Convening and servicing meetings: He summons and provides administrative services for meetings of the various UN organs and their agencies.
7. Coordination of UN agencies: He coordinates the activities of the specialised agencies and represents the organisation at international functions.

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(a) Meaning of political authority

Political authority is the legitimate or rightful power to make binding decisions, issue commands and enforce obedience within a state. It is power that is recognised and accepted as lawful by the people, so that citizens obey not merely out of fear but because they believe those who exercise it have the right to do so.

(b) Types of political authority (after Max Weber)

1. Traditional authority: Authority based on long-established customs, traditions and inherited status. Obedience is given because "it has always been so"; it is exercised by kings, chiefs and emirs whose right to rule is inherited.
2. Charismatic authority: Authority derived from the exceptional personal qualities, heroism or magnetism of an individual leader. Followers obey because of their devotion to and belief in the extraordinary personality of the leader, for example a great nationalist or religious leader.
3. Legal-rational authority: Authority based on a system of established laws, rules and procedures. Obedience is given to the office and the law rather than to the person; those in power hold authority only by virtue of the legal position they occupy, for example an elected president or a civil servant.

(Others sometimes listed: coercive, delegated and de facto/de jure authority.)

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Factors that necessitated the adoption of federalism in Nigeria

1. Large size of the country: Nigeria's vast territory made it difficult to administer from a single centre, so power had to be shared among regional units.
2. Ethnic and cultural diversity: The existence of over 250 ethnic groups with different languages, customs and ways of life made a unitary system unworkable; federalism allowed each group a measure of self-rule.
3. Fear of domination by the majority groups: The minority ethnic groups feared being dominated by the three major groups (Hausa/Fulani, Yoruba and Igbo), so regional autonomy was adopted to protect them.
4. Wide differences in the level of development: The regions were at different stages of educational and economic development, and federalism allowed each to develop at its own pace.
5. Colonial administrative structure: The British had already divided the country into Northern and Southern Protectorates and later into regions, laying the foundation for a federal arrangement.
6. Desire for unity in diversity: Federalism made it possible to hold the diverse peoples together in one country while still preserving their distinct identities.
7. Religious differences: The division between the largely Muslim North and the largely Christian South made a decentralised federal system more acceptable to all.

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Functions of pressure groups

1. Protection and promotion of members' interests: They defend and advance the economic, professional or social interests of their members, for example trade unions fighting for better wages and conditions.
2. Influencing government policy: They lobby the legislature, executive and political parties to make, amend or reject laws and policies in their favour.
3. Political education and enlightenment: They inform and educate members and the general public on political and economic issues, raising political awareness.
4. Serving as a link between government and the people: They channel the demands, grievances and views of their members to government and convey government intentions back to members.
5. Checking the excesses of government (watchdog role): They criticise and expose bad policies and abuses, acting as a check on government and defending democracy.
6. Supplementing the work of political parties: They mobilise support, provide expert information to government, and sometimes support parties that favour their interests.
7. Provision of welfare services: Many render welfare and social benefits to their members, such as loans, insurance and training.

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Functions of a public corporation

1. Provision of essential services: They supply basic utilities such as electricity, water, railways and telecommunications that are vital to national life.
2. Prevention of private monopoly: By running strategic industries, the state prevents private individuals from monopolising and exploiting the public.
3. Employment generation: They create large numbers of jobs and thereby reduce unemployment.
4. Provision of goods and services at affordable prices: Since profit is not the main aim, services are provided cheaply for the benefit of all citizens.
5. Source of revenue and rapid development: They generate revenue for government and undertake large capital projects that private investors cannot afford.

Problems of a public corporation

1. Inadequate funding: Heavy dependence on government subventions, which are often insufficient and delayed, cripples their operations.
2. Bureaucratic red tape and delay: Excessive official procedures make decision-making slow and inefficient.
3. Political interference: Government appoints and directs the management, and undue political control leads to poor decisions and instability.
4. Corruption and mismanagement: Embezzlement, fraud and the appointment of unqualified persons lead to waste and losses.
5. Poor management and inefficiency: Absence of the profit motive breeds laxity, waste and low productivity.

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Major changes introduced by the Clifford Constitution of 1922

(The Clifford Constitution was introduced in 1922 by Governor Sir Hugh Clifford.) Its major changes were:

1. Introduction of the elective principle: For the first time in Nigeria (and British West Africa), it allowed Africans to elect some of their representatives into the Legislative Council through the ballot box.
2. Establishment of an enlarged Legislative Council: It created a Legislative Council of 46 members (27 official and 19 unofficial) whose law-making authority covered the Colony of Lagos and the Southern Provinces.
3. Limited African representation: Four elected seats were provided, three for Lagos and one for Calabar, though on a restrictive franchise based on a high property/income qualification.
4. Encouragement of the growth of political parties: The introduction of elections stimulated political activity and led to the formation of political parties, notably Herbert Macaulay's Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) in 1923.
5. Growth of the nationalist press and politics: It widened political consciousness and encouraged the emergence of newspapers and political associations.

Note: the North was still administered separately by proclamation and was not included in the elective arrangement.