WAEC SSCE - Geography - 1996

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Monoculture is a term associated with plantation agriculture. It refers to the practice of growing only one type of crop or plant species over a large area of land, usually for commercial purposes. Monoculture allows for the efficient and intensive use of resources such as labor, fertilizers, and pesticides. However, it also has several negative impacts on the environment, including soil depletion, increased vulnerability to pests and diseases, and loss of biodiversity.

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The Muturu type of cattle is reared mainly in the western highland region of Nigeria because of its resistance to tsetse flies. Tsetse flies are insects that suck the blood of animals and spread diseases that can be fatal to them. The western highland region of Nigeria is known to have a high population of tsetse flies, making it unsuitable for rearing other types of cattle that are not resistant to them. However, the Muturu cattle are able to survive in this region because of their natural resistance to the flies, which makes them the most suitable breed for rearing in this area.

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One important consequence of the location of Nigeria between latitudes 40 and 140 North of the equator is that some parts of the country enjoy a hot, wet, tropical climate throughout the year. This is because Nigeria is located within the tropical region of the earth, which is characterized by high temperatures and rainfall due to the direct overhead rays of the sun. The proximity of Nigeria to the equator also means that it receives a relatively equal amount of sunlight throughout the year, leading to a relatively stable climate in terms of temperature and rainfall. This is why some parts of the country, particularly the southern regions, experience hot, wet, and humid conditions throughout the year, which are favorable for the growth of vegetation and agriculture.

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The veldt is a type of grassland located in southern Africa, particularly in the countries of South Africa, Zimbabwe, and Botswana. Therefore, the correct answer would be the southern part of Africa.

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In the bush fallowing system of agriculture, farmers rotate the use of land between cultivation and fallow periods. During the fallow period, the land is left uncultivated and allowed to rest for some time. This fallow period allows the land to regenerate, and as a result, some plant diseases are checked. The humus accumulates during the fallow period, which increases soil fertility, and can suppress some soil-borne pathogens. Additionally, the disease organisms lose their hosts during the fallow period, and some pathogens die off. Therefore, the answer is "disease organisms lose their hosts and die."

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The basin system of irrigation in the Nile Basin is not reliable because it depends on the flow of the Nile in a particular year. The amount of water flowing in the Nile River can vary greatly from year to year due to changes in weather patterns, such as drought or heavy rainfall. This variability makes it difficult to plan and manage irrigation using the basin system, as farmers cannot rely on a consistent and predictable supply of water. Additionally, the basin system may not be suitable for certain crops, and requires significant labor to construct and maintain. Overall, the unpredictability of the Nile's flow makes the basin system of irrigation less reliable than other methods of irrigation that do not rely on natural water sources.

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The correct option is "Age" which least influences the growth of settlements. Age, as a factor, refers to the length of time a settlement has existed. However, the age of a settlement does not necessarily determine its growth or development. Instead, other factors such as climate, mineral resources, relief, and the presence of manufacturing industries play a more significant role in the growth of settlements. Climate affects agriculture and human habitation, mineral resources provide economic benefits, relief determines accessibility and land use, and manufacturing industries create employment and promote trade. Therefore, age is not as influential in the growth of settlements compared to these other factors.

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A major characteristic of the local craft industry is that it is mainly hereditary. This means that the skills and knowledge required to produce these crafts are passed down from generation to generation within a particular community or family. It does not require a specially built factory, but can be produced in small workshops or even in homes. The craft industry also typically relies on a relatively small labor force, with each artisan or craftsman specializing in a particular aspect of the production process. The products of the craft industry are often sold locally or regionally, and may be used by other industries or businesses, but are primarily created for their own unique artistic or functional qualities. Finally, while the raw materials for craft production may be sourced locally, they can also be imported.

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The wind described above is a tornado. A tornado is a violent windstorm characterized by a twisting, funnel-shaped cloud. It is often referred to as a twister or cyclone and can be very destructive, with wind speeds that can reach up to 330kmph. Tornadoes are usually formed over land and are most common in tropical and subtropical regions.

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The most common vegetation type in Africa is Savanna. This is a type of grassland with scattered trees and bushes. It covers approximately 50% of Africa's land surface and is found in areas with a pronounced wet and dry season. Savanna vegetation is characterized by tall grasses during the rainy season, and sparse, dry vegetation during the dry season. It is home to a diverse range of wildlife, including large herbivores such as elephants, giraffes, and zebras, as well as predators such as lions and cheetahs.

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The green plants that serve as producers in the ecosystem are called autotrophs. Autotrophs are organisms that produce their own food using energy from the sun through the process of photosynthesis. These green plants convert light energy from the sun into chemical energy, which is stored in their tissues in the form of carbohydrates. Other organisms in the ecosystem, such as herbivores and carnivores, depend on these autotrophs for their food and energy, making them the primary producers in the food chain.

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Africa has the largest potential reserves of hydro-electric power in the world due to the abundant rainfall and waterfalls present in the continent. Many of the major rivers in Africa, such as the Congo, Zambezi, and Nile, have significant waterfalls that can be harnessed for hydro-electric power generation. Additionally, the rainfall in many regions of Africa is high, leading to the formation of large bodies of water and river systems that can also be used to generate hydro-electric power. Therefore, the combination of abundant water resources and waterfalls make Africa a prime location for the development of hydro-electric power, which can provide a reliable and renewable source of energy for the continent's growing population and economy.

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The diurnal range of temperature is the difference between the highest and the lowest temperature recorded in a station every day. It is also known as the daily temperature range. This means that it measures the temperature difference between the warmest part of the day and the coolest part of the day, usually during the night. The diurnal range of temperature can have an impact on various aspects of the environment, such as plant growth and animal behavior.

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The type of soil that is easily waterlogged is clayey soil. Clayey soil has tiny particles with less pore spaces that can hold water, making it less permeable and prone to waterlogging. When it rains, water can't drain quickly through the soil, and it accumulates on the surface, which leads to the soil becoming waterlogged. This condition can cause damage to crops because the roots will not have access to oxygen, which is necessary for their survival. Therefore, clayey soil is not suitable for certain crops that can't withstand waterlogging.

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The disadvantage of water transport is that it is not flexible. This means that water transport schedules are not as frequent as those of road, rail or air transport. Water transport may have to wait for the goods to reach a certain amount or until the ship is full before it can leave the port. In addition, water transport is not as adaptable to changes in destination or sudden changes in the size and volume of goods being transported, as it can be costly to make changes to the ship's route or to transfer goods to another ship. Therefore, water transport may not be the best choice for businesses that require faster delivery times or greater flexibility in their shipping options.

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(a) Examples

• (i) Light industry: textile manufacturing (or soap-making, food processing, electronics assembly, shoe-making).
• (ii) Heavy industry: iron and steel production (or petroleum refining, cement manufacture, shipbuilding, vehicle assembly).

(b) Four characteristics of each type

Light industry

• Uses light, small and easily handled raw materials and produces small, finished consumer goods.
• Requires relatively little capital and space to set up.
• Employs a large amount of labour, often semi-skilled.
• Its factories are market-oriented, often located near towns and consumers; causes little pollution.

Heavy industry

• Uses large, bulky and heavy raw materials and produces heavy, often intermediate goods (steel, machinery).
• Requires very large capital investment and much space.
• Depends heavily on power, machinery and advanced technology rather than labour numbers.
• It is usually raw-material or power-oriented, located near mineral fields, ports or energy sources, and tends to cause more pollution.

(c) Three favourable factors for the location of an industry (e.g. iron and steel, a heavy industry)

• Nearness to raw materials: location close to iron ore, coal/coke and limestone reduces the high cost of transporting bulky, weight-losing materials.
• Availability of power/energy: steady supply of electricity, coal or gas is needed to run the heavy machinery and furnaces.
• Good transport and market: access to railways, roads or ports allows raw materials to be brought in and the heavy finished products to be moved to markets cheaply.
• Availability of capital and labour: large funds and skilled workers are needed to establish and run the plant.

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(a) Five advantages of countries trading with one another (international trade)

• Access to goods not produced at home: countries obtain raw materials, manufactured goods and services that they cannot produce themselves or produce only at high cost.
• Earning of foreign exchange: exporting goods brings in foreign currency used to pay for imports and to develop the economy.
• Encouragement of specialisation: each country concentrates on producing what it makes best (comparative advantage), raising efficiency and output.
• Wider market and higher income: producers sell to a larger world market, increasing production, employment and national income.
• Promotion of friendship and cooperation: trade fosters good political and cultural relations, and the exchange of ideas and technology between nations.
• Disposal of surplus: countries can sell off surplus produce instead of allowing it to waste.

(b) Four factors that influenced trade between Nigeria and Canada

• Difference in natural resources and products: Nigeria supplies mainly primary products (crude oil, cocoa, agricultural raw materials) while Canada supplies manufactured goods, machinery, wheat and technology, so each needs what the other has.
• Differences in level of industrial and technological development: Canada is highly industrialised and exports manufactured/capital goods, while Nigeria, less industrialised, imports them, encouraging exchange.
• Differences in climate and agriculture: Canada's temperate climate yields wheat and temperate produce, while Nigeria's tropical climate yields cocoa and tropical crops, so the two exchange complementary produce.
• Transport, communication and international agreements: availability of shipping and air links, together with trade agreements and Commonwealth membership, eased the movement of goods and payments between the two countries.
• Demand and purchasing power: the existence of demand and the ability to pay in each country supported the flow of trade.

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(a) Outline map of Africa

• (i) Two areas important for fruit farming: the Mediterranean coastlands of North Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia - citrus, grapes, olives) and the south-western Cape region of South Africa (grapes, citrus, deciduous fruits). (The Nile Delta and the Kenya highlands are also acceptable.)
• (ii) Two areas important for irrigation agriculture: the Nile Valley and Delta in Egypt/Sudan and the Gezira scheme between the Blue and White Nile (Sudan). (The inland Niger delta in Mali is also acceptable.)
• (iii) One important town in each area: for fruit farming - Cape Town (or Casablanca); for irrigation - Cairo (or Wad Medani for the Gezira).

Label the coastline, the Nile, and a key distinguishing fruit-farming from irrigation areas.

(b) Three problems facing the cultivation of fruits in the area selected (e.g. the Cape/Mediterranean fruit belt)

• Water shortage and summer drought: the dry, hot summers mean fruit trees need costly irrigation, and water can be scarce.
• Pests and diseases: insects, fungi and plant diseases attack the fruits, lowering yield and quality unless expensive spraying is done.
• Perishability, storage and transport problems: fruits spoil quickly, so poor storage, refrigeration and transport lead to heavy losses before they reach distant markets.
• Marketing and price fluctuations: competition and unstable world prices reduce farmers' incomes; frost and strong winds can also damage crops.

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(a) Four problems facing agriculture in Nigeria

• Poor and outdated methods: most farming is done on small scattered plots with simple tools (hoes and cutlasses) and little mechanisation, keeping output low.
• Inadequate finance and inputs: shortage of credit, improved seeds, fertilizers and modern machinery limits production and expansion.
• Poor storage, processing and transport: bad rural roads and lack of storage/processing facilities cause heavy post-harvest losses and difficulty in getting produce to market.
• Land tenure problems: the fragmented, inherited land-holding system makes it hard to acquire large blocks of land for commercial farming.
• Unfavourable natural factors: pests, diseases, drought, flooding and declining soil fertility reduce yields, while rural-urban migration causes a shortage of farm labour.

(b) Three effects of these problems on economic development

• Low food production and food insecurity: insufficient food raises prices, causes hunger and forces costly food imports that drain foreign exchange.
• Shortage of industrial raw materials: agro-based industries lack enough raw materials, slowing industrial growth and causing under-utilisation of factories.
• Reduced income and foreign exchange: low exports of cash crops lower farmers' incomes and government revenue, worsening rural poverty and unemployment.

(c) How the problems can be solved

• Provide agricultural credit, subsidies and inputs (improved seeds, fertilizers, machinery) to farmers.
• Encourage mechanised and large-scale commercial farming and reform the land tenure system.
• Build storage, processing and good rural roads, and establish stable markets and price support.
• Provide irrigation, pest and disease control, and extension/education services to raise and stabilise yields.
• Make farming attractive to the young through incentives to reduce rural-urban migration.

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These are landforms produced mainly by wind action (deflation and abrasion) in hot desert regions. Two are described below with the aid of labelled diagrams.

(a) Rock pedestal (mushroom rock / gour)

Diagram: a rock with a broad, rounded top standing on a narrow, undercut stem, resembling a mushroom, with wind arrows striking the base.

• Characteristics: it has a wide upper part resting on a thin, narrow base (stem), giving a mushroom or table shape. The neck is deeply undercut and the whole feature stands isolated on the desert floor.
• Mode of formation: it develops where a mass of rock has harder rock on top and softer rock below. Wind carries sand grains that are heaviest and most concentrated near the ground, so abrasion (sand-blasting) is strongest at the base. The lower, softer part is worn away faster than the top, undercutting the rock until it stands on a narrow pedestal shaped like a mushroom.

(b) Yardang

Diagram: parallel ridges and grooves running in the direction of the prevailing wind, with wind arrows aligned along the furrows.

• Characteristics: it consists of long, steep-sided ridges of hard rock separated by grooves or furrows of softer rock. The ridges are aligned parallel to the prevailing wind and may be several metres high and long.
• Mode of formation: it forms where bands of hard and soft rock lie alternately and are aligned in the direction of the wind. Wind-driven sand abrades and scours out the softer bands, cutting them into deep grooves, while the more resistant hard bands are left standing up as ridges. Continued deflation and abrasion deepen the furrows and sharpen the ridges into yardangs.

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(a) Three classes of settlement based on function

Settlements can be grouped by the dominant activity or service they provide:

• (i) Administrative/capital settlement - its main function is government and administration. Example: Abuja (also Washington D.C.).
• (ii) Industrial/manufacturing settlement - dominated by factories and manufacturing. Example: Aba or Kano (also the mining town of Jos).
• (iii) Commercial/market settlement - centred on trade, markets and business. Example: Onitsha (also Lagos as a great commercial centre).

(Other acceptable classes: port/harbour settlement such as Port Harcourt; religious settlement such as Mecca; educational settlement such as a university town; tourist/resort settlement; agricultural/rural settlement.)

(b) Characteristics of two settlement types

1. Administrative settlement (e.g. Abuja)

• It houses government offices, ministries, the seat of the executive, legislature and judiciary, and embassies.
• It is usually well planned with good roads, modern buildings and public utilities.
• Its working population is dominated by civil servants and administrators, and it attracts related services (hotels, banks).

2. Commercial/market settlement (e.g. Onitsha)

• It is dominated by large markets, shops, warehouses and financial institutions.
• It has a high daytime population and heavy traffic of buyers, sellers and goods, often at a route or river junction (nodal point).
• Its people are mainly engaged in buying, selling and transport services, and it usually has a dense, congested central business area.

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(a) Explanation of the terms

• (i) Over-population: a situation in which the number of people living in an area is greater than the available resources can adequately support. The population outstrips the resources (food, land, jobs, services), so the standard of living falls, and there is unemployment, poverty and pressure on facilities.
• (ii) Migration: the movement of people from one place (or country) to another with the intention of settling, temporarily or permanently. It involves leaving one area (out-migration/emigration) and entering another (in-migration/immigration), and may be internal (within a country) or international.

(b) Three factors encouraging each

Factors encouraging over-population

• High birth rate arising from early marriage, polygamy and the desire for large families.
• Falling death rate due to improved medical care, better sanitation and food supply, so more people survive.
• Heavy in-migration of people into an area in search of work and better living conditions, swelling numbers beyond available resources.
• Limited or declining resources (poor soils, few industries) so that even a modest population becomes too large for the area.

Factors encouraging migration

• Economic factors: search for employment, higher wages and better business opportunities pull people to towns and richer areas; poverty and joblessness push them away from poorer areas.
• Social factors: desire for better education, health care and social amenities, and family reunion.
• Political and environmental factors: wars, insecurity, persecution, drought, flooding or famine force people to move to safer, more productive areas.

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Geographical Account of the Chad Basin

(a) Relief and drainage

• The Chad Basin is a broad, low-lying inland depression in north-eastern Nigeria, extending into Niger, Chad and Cameroon. Much of the Nigerian part is a gently undulating plain, generally about 200 to 400 m above sea level, composed mainly of sedimentary sands, clays and alluvial deposits.
• Its surface includes sandy plains, old sand dunes, clay flats known as firki, and low flood plains. The land slopes gently towards Lake Chad.
• Drainage is internal: rivers flow towards Lake Chad rather than to the Atlantic Ocean. Important rivers include the Hadejia and Jama'are, which combine to form the Komadugu Yobe, as well as the Yedseram and Ngadda rivers.
• Many streams are seasonal. They carry much water during the rainy season but have little or no flow in the dry season. Lake Chad is shallow and its area has greatly reduced as a result of drought, evaporation and increased use of river water.

(b) Agriculture

• Agriculture is the major occupation. Rain-fed farming is practised during the short rainy season, while flood-recession farming and irrigation are practised along river valleys and around Lake Chad.
• Food crops include millet, sorghum, maize, rice, cowpea, beans, wheat and vegetables such as onions, tomatoes and pepper. Groundnut is an important cash crop.
• Irrigation farming, including the South Chad Irrigation Project, enables the cultivation of rice, wheat and vegetables during the dry season.
• Livestock rearing is important. Cattle, sheep, goats and camels graze on the natural grasslands, while fishing is carried out in Lake Chad and in the rivers. Agricultural products include fish, beef, milk, hides and skins.

(c) Problems of development

• Drought and unreliable rainfall: Low and irregular rainfall causes crop failure, shortage of water and poor pasture.
• Desert encroachment: The Sahara is advancing southwards, while wind erosion and overgrazing remove vegetation and expose the soil.
• Shrinkage of Lake Chad: This reduces water available for fishing, irrigation, transport and livestock.
• Poor soils: Many areas have sandy, infertile or saline soils, while some low-lying areas are liable to flooding.
• Inadequate capital and technology: Farmers have limited access to modern irrigation equipment, improved seeds, storage facilities and credit.
• Remoteness and poor transport: The basin is far from major markets and ports; poor roads increase the cost of moving farm produce.
• Insecurity and inadequate social amenities: Conflict, sparse settlement, limited health facilities and low educational levels discourage investment.

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Distinction between tropical grassland and temperate grassland

(a) Location

(b) Climate

(c) Vegetation characteristics

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Pastoral nomadism in East Africa

(a) Areas and people involved

Pastoral nomadism is practised in the drier savanna and semi-desert areas of East Africa where rainfall is low and unreliable. These include the plains of Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Somalia and Ethiopia. The main peoples involved are the Masai (of Kenya and Tanzania), the Turkana, Karamojong, Somali and Fulani-related Nilotic groups. They keep herds of cattle, goats, sheep and camels.

(b) Methods

• The herdsmen move (migrate) from place to place with their animals in search of pasture and water, following the seasonal rains.
• Grazing is on natural, unimproved pasture; no fodder is cultivated and animals feed on communal open range.
• Herd sizes are kept as large as possible because cattle are a measure of wealth and social status rather than commercial output.
• They live in temporary settlements (e.g. the Masai manyatta) that are abandoned when the herd moves on.

(c) Problems

• Shortage of water and pasture during the long dry season, leading to the death of animals.
• Diseases and pests such as rinderpest, nagana (from the tsetse fly) and tick-borne diseases.
• Overgrazing of communal land, causing soil erosion and desertification.
• Poor quality stock of low milk and meat yield, and conflicts with settled farmers over land, plus difficulty of veterinary and marketing services because of constant movement.

(d) Economic importance

• It provides milk, meat, hides and skins for the people's food and for sale.
• It supports the leather and meat-processing industries and earns some income and foreign exchange.
• It makes productive use of marginal semi-arid land that is unsuitable for crop farming, and provides a livelihood and employment for the pastoral communities.

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(a) Outline map of Africa (areas outside Nigeria)

• (i) Two areas important for gold mining: the Witwatersrand (Johannesburg area) of South Africa and the Ashanti/Obuasi area of Ghana.
• (ii) Two areas important for petroleum: Libya (Sirte Basin) and Algeria (Hassi Messaoud, Saharan fields); Angola (Cabinda) is also acceptable.
• (iii) Two areas important for copper: the Copperbelt of Zambia and the Katanga (Shaba) region of the Democratic Republic of Congo.
• (iv) One important mining town for each mineral: gold - Johannesburg (or Obuasi); petroleum - Hassi Messaoud (or a Libyan oil terminal); copper - Kitwe/Ndola (or Lubumbashi).

(b) Four contributions of minerals to the economy of African countries

• Foreign exchange earnings: export of minerals (gold, oil, copper) brings in large amounts of foreign currency.
• Government revenue: royalties, taxes and profits from mining fund national development.
• Employment: mining and related industries provide jobs and raise incomes.
• Industrial raw materials and energy: minerals feed local industries and petroleum supplies power for the economy.
• Infrastructural development: mining areas attract roads, railways, electricity and new towns.

(c) Three problems associated with mining in Africa

• Environmental damage: mining causes land degradation, deforestation, pollution of water and air, and abandoned pits and heaps.
• Over-dependence on a few minerals: economies tied to one or two minerals suffer badly when world prices fall (price fluctuation).
• Shortage of capital and skilled labour/technology: heavy investment and expertise are needed, and many countries rely on foreign firms that repatriate profits.
• Exhaustion of deposits, poor working conditions and accidents, and displacement of communities are further problems.

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Comparison of the Eastern Scarplands and the Western Highlands (Nigeria)

(a) Relief

(b) People and population

(c) Settlement pattern

(d) Agriculture

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(a) Sketch maps of Nigeria

(i) Climatic belts

(ii) Dominant air masses influencing Nigeria

The Tropical Maritime (mT) air mass is moist and originates over the Atlantic Ocean. The Tropical Continental (cT) air mass is dry and dusty and originates over the Sahara Desert. Their boundary is the Inter-Tropical Discontinuity (ITD).

(b) Adaptations of Sudan savannah vegetation to the climate

1. Trees have long tap roots which reach underground water during the long dry season.
2. Many trees shed their leaves during the dry season in order to reduce water loss through transpiration.
3. Trees commonly have small, thorny leaves and thick bark. These reduce transpiration and help the plants withstand heat, drought and bush fires.

(c) Economic importance of natural vegetation in Nigeria

1. It provides food, such as fruits, nuts, seeds, leaves and edible roots, for man.
2. It supplies grasses and browse which serve as food for livestock and wildlife.
3. It supplies raw materials for industries, including timber, rubber, fibres, ropes, paper pulp, gums and medicinal herbs.
4. It provides employment and fuelwood through forestry, logging, sawmilling, charcoal production and related activities.

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(a) The term natural environment

The natural environment refers to all the physical surroundings that exist naturally without being made or altered by man. It is made up of the living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components of the Earth. These include the land (relief, rocks and soils), water bodies (rivers, lakes, seas), the atmosphere (air and climate), and plant and animal life. In short, it is the total sum of natural features and conditions within which man lives and carries out his activities.

(b) Advantages and disadvantages of man's intervention with the natural environment

Four advantages

• Increased food production: clearing land, irrigation and mechanised farming raise agricultural output to feed a growing population.
• Provision of settlement and infrastructure: building of towns, roads, dams and industries provides shelter, employment and services.
• Harnessing of resources and energy: mining, damming of rivers for hydro-electricity and exploitation of forests supply raw materials and power for development.
• Control of natural hazards: construction of embankments, drainage and afforestation helps to control floods, erosion and desert advance.

Four disadvantages

• Deforestation and loss of vegetation: excessive clearing destroys forests and the habitats of wildlife, reducing biodiversity.
• Soil erosion and land degradation: overgrazing, bush burning and poor farming expose the soil, leading to gullying and loss of fertility.
• Pollution: industrial, oil and domestic wastes pollute the air, water and land, harming human and animal health.
• Climate change and desertification: emission of gases and removal of vegetation upset the climate and encourage the spread of deserts, drought and flooding.

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(a) Annotated diagram of the relief of an ocean basin

(b) Characteristics of two relief features

1. Continental shelf

• It is the shallow, gently sloping submerged margin of a continent, extending from the coast to the shelf break.
• It is a continuation of the land beneath the sea and commonly has a very gentle gradient of about 1 in 500.
• It is generally less than 200 m deep and occupies about 7% of the total ocean area.
• It is rich in fish and is an important area for offshore petroleum exploitation and recreation.

2. Continental slope

• It is the relatively steep part of the ocean floor that descends from the outer edge of the continental shelf to the deep-sea plain.
• It commonly extends through depths of about 1,800 m to 5,400 m.
• It lies close to the continent and forms the boundary between the continental margin and the deep ocean basin.
• It may be cut by submarine canyons and is usually much steeper than the continental shelf.

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(a) Three reasons why air transportation may be preferred to other modes

• Speed: it is by far the fastest means of transport, ideal for long distances and urgent goods or passengers.
• Access to difficult terrain: aircraft can cross seas, mountains, deserts, forests and swamps that road, rail and water cannot easily reach.
• Suitability for perishable and valuable goods: it moves perishable items (flowers, fish, medicines) and high-value light goods quickly before they spoil.
• Comfort and time-saving: it saves travellers' time and offers comfortable, direct long-distance travel; it is also vital in emergencies and relief operations.

(b) Three disadvantages of air transportation

• Very high cost: building airports and buying, fuelling and maintaining aircraft is expensive, so fares and freight charges are high.
• Limited carrying capacity: aircraft carry relatively small loads and cannot move bulky, heavy goods such as timber, minerals or machinery cheaply.
• Weather dependence and risk: flights are easily disrupted by fog, storms and poor visibility, and accidents, though rare, are usually fatal.
• It also requires skilled personnel and advanced technology, and needs large, specially prepared airports.

(c) How the disadvantages can be overcome

• Reduce cost through government subsidies, larger fuel-efficient aircraft and better management to lower fares.
• Improve capacity by using wide-bodied cargo aircraft for heavier loads and combining air with road/rail for bulky goods.
• Improve safety and weather handling by installing modern radar, navigation and communication equipment, regular maintenance, and training of skilled pilots and engineers.
• Provide more and better-equipped airports with all-weather runways and lighting.

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(a) Five benefits Nigeria derives from being a member of ECOWAS

(ECOWAS = Economic Community of West African States, formed in 1975.)

• Wider market for trade: the removal of trade barriers and tariffs among members gives Nigerian goods a large regional market, boosting exports and industry.
• Free movement of people: citizens can travel, live and work in member states without visas, aiding employment, labour supply and business.
• Economic cooperation and development: joint projects in transport, energy, telecommunications and agriculture speed up development that a single country could not achieve alone.
• Regional peace and security: the community (through bodies such as ECOMOG) helps to keep peace, settle conflicts and maintain stability in the sub-region, in which Nigeria plays a leading role.
• Bargaining strength and cooperation: acting as a bloc gives members greater bargaining power in world trade and attracts foreign investment; there is also exchange of skills, technology and culture.
• Common currency and payment arrangements ease trade and travel.

(b) Four problems facing the community

• Differences in official language and colonial background (English, French, Portuguese) hinder communication and cooperation.
• Similar (competing) economies: most members produce the same primary products and so compete rather than complement one another, limiting intra-regional trade.
• Poor transport and communication links between member states raise the cost of movement of goods and people.
• Political instability and insecurity (coups, wars, insurgency) and border disputes disrupt cooperation.
• Inadequate funding and unequal levels of development, smuggling, and different currencies also weaken the community.

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(a)(i) Mean annual temperature

Sum of monthly temperatures: \((-19)+(-17)+(-8)+2+10+17+18+18+11+4+(-5)+(-13) = 18\). \[\text{Mean} = \frac{18}{12} = 1.5^{\circ}\text{C}.\]

(a)(ii) Annual range of temperature

Range = highest − lowest = \(18^{\circ}\text{C} - (-19^{\circ}\text{C}) = 37^{\circ}\text{C}\).

(a)(iii) Total annual temperature

The sum of the twelve monthly temperatures = 18°C.

(b) Distribution of precipitation

Precipitation falls in every month (no dry month), giving a total of 503 mm. The maximum comes in the warm summer months of June and July (78 mm each) and the minimum in February (17 mm). Thus the wettest season is the short warm summer and the driest season is the long cold winter, a clear summer-maximum regime with a moderate annual total.

(c) Type of natural vegetation and reasons

The vegetation associated with this data is coniferous (boreal) forest, the Taiga.

• The winters are long and severely cold (five months below freezing, down to −19°C), and only needle-leaf coniferous evergreens (pine, fir, spruce) can withstand such cold and the short growing season.
• The summers are short but warm (June to August, 17 to 18°C) with a summer rainfall maximum, giving just enough warmth and moisture for these hardy conifers, whose conical shape and needle leaves shed snow and reduce water loss.

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(a) Outline map of Nigeria showing the railway lines

• (i) The Western line linking Lagos to Nguru: draw the line from Lagos running north through Ibadan - Oyo - Ogbomosho - Ilorin - Minna - Kaduna - Zaria - Kano and on to Nguru in the far north.
• (ii) The Eastern line linking Port Harcourt to Kaduna: draw the line from Port Harcourt running north through Aba - Enugu - Makurdi - Kafanchan to Kaduna (where it joins the western line). Label the towns and the two coastal terminals (Lagos and Port Harcourt).

(b) Four ways rail contributed to the economic development of Nigeria

• Movement of bulky goods cheaply: the railway carries heavy, bulky produce (groundnuts, cotton, tin, coal, cocoa) over long distances at low cost from the interior to the ports for export.
• Opening up of the interior: it linked remote inland areas to the coast, encouraging trade, farming and the growth of towns along the line (Kaduna, Kafanchan).
• Promotion of mining and industry: it enabled the transport of coal from Enugu, tin from Jos and raw materials to factories, boosting mining and manufacturing.
• Employment and passenger movement: it provides jobs and cheap mass movement of people to work, markets and other regions, aiding labour mobility and national integration.

(c) Three problems of rail transportation in Nigeria

• Old and poorly maintained equipment: ageing tracks, coaches and locomotives with a narrow-gauge system cause frequent breakdowns and delays.
• Limited network: the few lines do not reach many parts of the country, and there is little inter-connection, so rail cannot serve all areas.
• Slow speed and inflexibility: trains are slow and can only move between fixed stations, requiring other transport to reach final destinations.
• Inadequate funding and competition from road transport further weaken the railways.

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Similarities and differences between latitude and longitude

Similarities

• Both are imaginary lines drawn on the globe or map to help locate places.
• Both are measured in degrees (°), minutes and seconds, using the centre of the Earth as reference.
• Both form part of the grid system; a place is fixed precisely by giving its latitude and longitude together.
• Both have a reference (0°) line: the Equator for latitude and the Greenwich (Prime) Meridian for longitude.

Differences

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(a) Outline map of Africa showing the required features

Key: The horizontal line is Latitude 0° (the Equator), while the vertical line is Longitude 20°E. Their intersection is in the Congo Basin area. The Sahara Desert is shown in the north and the Kalahari Desert in the south. The Canary Current is shown along the western coast and the Mozambique Current along the eastern coast.

(b) Reasons for the presence of deserts in North Africa

1. Cold ocean current: The cold Canary Current along the north-western coast cools the air, reducing evaporation and rainfall. It commonly produces fog rather than effective rain.
2. Dry north-east trade winds: The prevailing north-east trade winds blow from the dry continental interior and therefore carry little moisture.
3. Continentality: Large parts of North Africa are far from the sea. Moisture-bearing winds lose much of their moisture before reaching the interior, resulting in very low rainfall.