WAEC SSCE - Geography - 2011

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The angle of difference between the true North and magnetic North is known as magnetic declination. This angle varies depending on the location on the Earth's surface and changes over time due to fluctuations in the Earth's magnetic field. Magnetic declination is important for navigation, especially when using a compass to find directions. It is necessary to correct for magnetic declination when using a compass to get accurate readings of true North.

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In areas where folding has occurred, oil and natural gas usually collect in synclines. Synclines are trough-like folds in the Earth's crust where the beds dip towards each other. As sediments accumulate in these troughs, they can form reservoirs where hydrocarbons such as oil and natural gas can collect and accumulate. The hydrocarbons are trapped by impermeable rock layers, such as shale or salt, that prevent them from escaping to the surface. Therefore, synclines are often targeted for oil and gas exploration and drilling.

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The correct answer is nitrogen. Nitrogen makes up about 78% of the Earth's atmosphere, which means it is the most abundant gas in terms of total volume. Oxygen is the second most abundant gas, making up about 21% of the atmosphere, and the remaining 1% consists of other gases such as argon, carbon dioxide, neon, helium, and hydrogen.

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The solar system comprises the Sun and all the objects that orbit around it. These objects include planets, dwarf planets, moons, asteroids, comets, and other small bodies. The most well-known components of the solar system are the eight planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) and their respective moons. These objects all revolve around the Sun, which is at the center of the solar system. Therefore, the correct option is "the sun and its nine planets."

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The harmattan is a dry and dusty West African trade wind that blows from the Sahara towards the Gulf of Guinea between November and February. Therefore, the correct answer is November to January.

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Light industries predominate in West Africa because of inadequate capital. This is because light industries require less capital and technology to set up and operate compared to heavy industries. The economies of West African countries are largely based on agriculture, which does not generate much income, leading to limited investment capital. Therefore, entrepreneurs in West Africa tend to start small-scale industries that require less capital, such as textile mills, food processing plants, and furniture making. These industries also provide employment opportunities for the rapidly growing population, making them a viable option for economic growth. However, the limited capital also affects the quality and quantity of output as well as the competitiveness of the industries.

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The type of weathering that is common in humid tropical areas is hydrolysis. Hydrolysis is a chemical weathering process in which water reacts with minerals in rocks, causing them to break down and decompose. The warm and moist climate in humid tropical areas accelerates this process, making it the dominant type of weathering in these regions. This type of weathering is important in the formation of clay minerals, which are abundant in tropical soils.

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Soil erosion is a major problem in the highlands of West Africa due to factors such as deforestation, overgrazing, and unsuitable agricultural practices. The options listed in the question provide possible solutions to the problem of soil erosion except for one. Option A, "indiscriminate felling of trees," involves cutting down trees without considering their impact on soil conservation. This practice increases the rate of soil erosion and is, therefore, not a solution to the problem. Option B, "rotational grazing," involves dividing a large pasture into smaller areas and rotating the grazing of livestock between these areas. This helps to prevent overgrazing, reduces soil compaction, and allows grass to grow back. Option C, "strip cultivation," involves planting crops in strips or rows and leaving spaces between them. This method reduces soil erosion by allowing rainfall to infiltrate the soil instead of running off. Option D, "planting of shelter belts," involves planting trees or shrubs around farmlands to provide protection against wind and water erosion. This helps to stabilize the soil, reduce runoff, and provide habitat for wildlife. Therefore, the answer is option A, "indiscriminate felling of trees," as it exacerbates soil erosion rather than solving it.

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Sea waves are the most effective agent of coastal erosion. This is because waves carry a lot of energy and force, which can cause rocks and other materials on the coast to break down over time. As waves approach the shore, they slow down and become taller, causing them to crash onto the beach with more force. This force can cause erosion by breaking down rocks and carrying sediment away from the coast. Sea currents, underground water, and sea tides can also contribute to coastal erosion, but waves are generally considered to be the most significant factor.

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Descending wind does not encourage the formation of rainfall. Descending air warms adiabatically (without exchange of heat with the surrounding), leading to an increase in temperature and a decrease in relative humidity. This results in a reduction of cloud formation, leading to clear skies and dry weather. Therefore, option C, descending wind, does not encourage the formation of rainfall.

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Descending wind does not encourage the formation of rainfall. When air descends, it warms up and becomes drier because its ability to hold moisture increases with temperature. This warm, dry air evaporates moisture from the ground, plants, and other sources, leading to arid conditions. Therefore, descending wind does not lead to the formation of clouds and rainfall, but rather clear, sunny weather. On the other hand, converging and ascending winds bring moist air together and upward, leading to cloud formation and eventually precipitation. Warm winds also contribute to the formation of rainfall by bringing warm, moist air to cooler regions where it can condense and form clouds.

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The roles of transportation in economic development in West Africa include various aspects such as the movement of goods and services, opening up of new lands, and provision of employment opportunities. However, national disintegration is not a role of transportation in economic development. In fact, transportation can promote national integration by connecting different regions and promoting cultural exchange and understanding. Therefore, the correct answer is "national disintegration".

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Aluminum is used largely in the aviation industry because of its lightweight and high strength properties. It is also corrosion-resistant and has good electrical conductivity, making it suitable for use in aircraft construction, such as for the manufacturing of aircraft frames, fuselage, wings, and other parts. Aluminum's lightweight properties help in reducing the overall weight of an aircraft, which in turn reduces fuel consumption and operational costs. Therefore, aluminum is a preferred material for the aviation industry.

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Desert areas experience high daily range of temperature mainly because the sky is cloudless. Clouds play an important role in regulating temperature because they reflect some of the incoming solar radiation back into space and trap some of the outgoing heat radiation from the earth's surface. In the absence of clouds, the earth's surface receives a lot of solar radiation during the day, which causes the temperature to rise. At night, the earth's surface loses heat radiation rapidly, which causes the temperature to drop. Therefore, in desert areas where there are no clouds to regulate the temperature, there is a high daily range of temperature, with very hot days and very cold nights.

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A warm ocean current is a current that flows from the tropics towards the poles and brings warmer water with it. Among the given options, the Mozambique Current is a warm ocean current. It flows southwards along the east coast of Africa from the equator and transports warm water towards the southern tip of Africa. The California Current is a cold ocean current that flows southward along the western coast of North America, while the Benguela Current is a cold ocean current that flows northward along the southwestern coast of Africa. The West Wind Drift is a cold ocean current that circles Antarctica in the Southern Ocean.

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Liberia records the highest rainfall among the given options. Liberia is a country located in West Africa and is known for its tropical rainforest climate. This climate is characterized by high temperatures and high rainfall throughout the year. The country receives an average of 4,500 mm (177 inches) of rainfall annually, making it one of the wettest places on earth. In contrast, Algeria, Mali, and Egypt are located in the Sahara desert and are known for their arid and semi-arid climates, which receive very low levels of rainfall.

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Argon in the lower atmosphere is of little use to man, plants, and animals. Argon is an inert gas and it makes up about 0.93% of the Earth's atmosphere. It is colorless, odorless, and non-reactive with other elements, so it has no significant role in supporting life or other natural processes. Carbon dioxide is used by plants during photosynthesis, oxygen is vital for respiration and nitrogen is essential for the growth and development of plants.

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The acacia tree is commonly found in the savannah lands. Acacia trees are well adapted to survive in the hot and dry conditions of the savannah, with their long roots able to tap into underground water sources. They are also able to survive fires, which are common in the savannah, due to their thick bark and the ability to resprout from their roots. Additionally, acacia trees provide important ecosystem services in the savannah, such as providing food and shelter for a variety of animals, as well as nitrogen fixation which helps to enrich the soil.

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The answer is terracing. Terracing is not a common farming system in West Africa. Crop rotation, rotational bush fallowing, and subsistence farming are common farming systems in West Africa. Crop rotation involves planting different crops in the same field in different seasons to maintain soil fertility and control pests and diseases. Rotational bush fallowing is a farming system where a plot of land is cleared of vegetation and farmed for a few years, and then allowed to lie fallow for a longer period to allow the vegetation to regenerate. Subsistence farming is a type of farming where farmers produce only enough food to feed themselves and their families. It is a common farming system in West Africa, where small-scale farmers grow crops and rear animals for their own consumption. Terracing, on the other hand, is a farming practice where steps are constructed on sloping land to create a flat surface for farming. It is more commonly used in mountainous regions such as Asia and South America, where there is a need to farm on steep slopes.

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A rock through which water cannot easily pass is termed impermeable. Impermeable rocks do not allow water to pass through them easily due to their compact nature and absence of interconnected pores or fractures. Examples of impermeable rocks include clay, granite, and basalt. Impermeable rocks are important in the formation of aquifers, which are underground layers of permeable rock or sediment that hold and transmit water.

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Tourism is the leading industry in The Gambia. The Gambia is known for its beautiful beaches, wildlife, and rich cultural heritage, which attract tourists from around the world. The tourism industry contributes significantly to the country's economy, providing employment opportunities and generating foreign exchange earnings. In contrast, while Ghana, Liberia, and Nigeria have tourism potential, their leading industries are agriculture, mining, and oil and gas, respectively.

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Wheat is not a plantation crop in West Africa. Plantation crops are crops that are grown on large-scale farms or plantations, typically for export. In West Africa, common plantation crops include rubber, sugar cane, and coffee. Wheat, on the other hand, is not typically grown in large plantations in West Africa. It is a cereal crop that is more commonly grown in other parts of the world, such as North America, Europe, and Asia. Therefore, the answer is (b) wheat.

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The lowest layer of the Earth's atmosphere is called the troposphere. This is the layer closest to the Earth's surface and extends from the ground up to an average height of about 12 kilometers (7.5 miles). The troposphere contains most of the Earth's weather and is where we live and breathe. This is the layer where clouds and precipitation form, and where temperature generally decreases with altitude. The other layers of the atmosphere are the stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere, and each of them have different characteristics and functions.

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The most permanent physical property of the soil is its texture. Soil texture refers to the relative proportions of different-sized mineral particles in the soil, such as sand, silt, and clay. The texture of the soil determines its ability to retain and transmit water and nutrients, as well as the amount of air available for plant roots. Soil texture can change over time due to erosion, weathering, and other factors, but it is generally considered to be a relatively stable characteristic of soil.

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A conurbation is a build-up area that consists of a number of towns or cities merged together yet maintaining their individual identities. It is a continuous urban area that is formed by the expansion and merging of several cities or towns. This leads to the formation of a larger metropolitan area. Examples of conurbations include the Greater London Urban Area, which consists of London and the surrounding cities and towns that have grown together over time.

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The term "sial" is derived from the words silica and aluminum, which are the two most abundant elements in the upper part of the Earth's crust. The upper part of the Earth's crust is composed mainly of rocks such as granite and basalt, which contain high amounts of silica and aluminum. Therefore, the mineral contents of the upper part of the Earth's crust are collectively called sial. Olivine and phosphate are not major components of the sial.

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The answer to this question is ecosystem. An ecosystem is a community of living organisms and their physical environment, which includes both biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components. The components of an ecosystem, such as the soil, climate, vegetation, and animal population, are all interdependent and interact with each other in a dynamic way. For example, the vegetation in an ecosystem provides food and habitat for the animal population, which in turn helps to pollinate and disperse seeds, thus maintaining the growth and diversity of the vegetation. The climate and soil type also affect the type of vegetation that can grow in an ecosystem, which then affects the animal population that can live there. Overall, an ecosystem is a complex and interconnected web of relationships between living and non-living components that work together to sustain life.

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The correct option is: II and IV. Most large cities are typically commercial centers where business and trade activities thrive due to the high concentration of people and resources. They also tend to be capital cities, serving as administrative centers for government and political activities. However, large cities are not typically associated with large plantations or being religious centers, as these tend to be found in rural areas or smaller towns.

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Air pollution is the contamination of the air with harmful substances that affect human health and the natural environment. Evapo-transpiration is a natural process that involves the evaporation of water from the soil and the transpiration of water vapor from plants into the atmosphere, which does not cause air pollution. On the other hand, the fumes from motor vehicles, the discharge of gases from factories, and volcanic eruptions can release harmful substances such as carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides into the air, causing air pollution. Therefore, the answer is evapo-transpiration.

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The treaty which formally established ECOWAS was signed on May 28th, 1975.

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(a) Sketch map of Africa

Key: Cameroon Highlands are shown in western Cameroon near the Nigeria-Cameroon border; Fouta Djallon Highlands are shown in Guinea, West Africa. The River Niger, which rises in the Fouta Djallon Highlands, is also shown and named.

(b) Importance of rivers to the economy of Africa

1. They provide inland waterways for transporting people and goods.
2. They are dammed to generate hydro-electric power for homes and industries.
3. They provide fish, which is a source of food, income and employment.
4. They supply water for irrigation, thereby supporting crop production, especially during dry periods.

(c) Problems limiting the use of African rivers

1. The presence of rapids, waterfalls and cataracts interrupts navigation and makes many river sections unsafe for boats.
2. Seasonal fluctuations in water volume cause flooding in the wet season and very shallow channels in the dry season.
3. Silting, sandbanks, floating vegetation and debris obstruct channels and ports, restricting the movement of vessels.

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(a) Four factors that favour lumbering in the Democratic Republic of Congo

• Extensive tropical rain forest - the vast Congo Basin forest supplies large quantities of valuable hardwoods such as mahogany, ebony and iroko.
• Hot, wet equatorial climate - heavy rainfall and high temperatures all year favour the rapid growth of the trees.
• Many navigable rivers - the River Congo and its tributaries provide cheap transport for floating logs to sawmills and ports.
• Availability of cheap labour for felling and moving the timber.
• Growing local and export demand for timber, which encourages the industry.

(b) Four problems of lumbering in the Democratic Republic of Congo

• Dense, mixed forest - the valuable trees are scattered among many worthless species, making selective felling difficult and costly.
• Poor transport inland - few roads and railways, and rapids on the rivers, make it hard to move logs from the interior.
• Thick undergrowth and swampy ground that hamper access and movement.
• Hard nature of tropical hardwoods and heavy logs that do not float easily, raising extraction costs.
• Shortage of skilled labour, capital and modern equipment, and the risk of pests and diseases.

(c) Two ways the problems could be solved

• Construction of more forest roads and railways and improvement of river navigation to ease the movement of logs.
• Provision of modern machinery, capital and training of skilled workers to make felling and haulage more efficient.
• Establishment of plantations of selected commercial species to reduce the difficulty of scattered trees.

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(a) Outline map of Nigeria

Key locations marked on the map:

1. The parallels 5°N and 13°N, and the meridian 8°E.
2. The Maiduguri/Borno area in the north-east, receiving about 600 mm of rainfall annually.
3. The Calabar/Cross River coastal area in the south-east, receiving about 2,000 mm to 3,050 mm of rainfall annually.
4. Maiduguri in the low-rainfall area and Calabar in the high-rainfall area.

(b) Rainfall pattern in Nigeria

1. Rainfall is not uniformly distributed in Nigeria. Its amount generally decreases from the coast northwards into the interior.
2. The coastal belt and the south-east receive the heaviest rainfall, generally over 2,000 mm annually. Parts of the coastal and south-eastern area receive up to about 3,050 mm or more.
3. Rainfall is lowest in the extreme north, especially around the Lake Chad and north-eastern areas, where annual totals may be about 600 mm or less.
4. The duration of the rainy season decreases from south to north. Coastal areas have rain for about 8 to 10 months, whereas the far north has about 3 to 4 rainy months.
5. Southern Nigeria has a double-maximum rainfall regime, with peaks commonly around June and October.
6. A short dry spell, called the August break, occurs between the two southern rainfall maxima.
7. Northern Nigeria has a single rainfall maximum, usually around August or September.
8. There are two main seasons: a rainy season and a dry season. The dry season becomes longer and more severe towards the north.
9. Areas of high relief, such as the Jos Plateau and the eastern highlands, receive more rainfall than surrounding lowlands because uplift of moist air produces relief rainfall.
10. The onset and movement of the rains follow the seasonal migration of the Inter-Tropical Discontinuity (ITD). Rain may begin with thunderstorms and may occasionally be heavy enough to cause flooding.

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(a) Five advantages of air transport over other means

• Speed - it is by far the fastest means of transport, covering long distances in the shortest time.
• Reaches inaccessible areas - it can serve places cut off by mountains, forests, swamps, deserts and seas where roads and rail cannot go.
• No need for a continuous track - it requires only airports at each end, not a costly route over the whole distance.
• Ideal for perishable and urgent goods - flowers, fresh fish, medicines and mail arrive quickly before they spoil.
• Comfort and convenience for long-distance passengers, and great value in emergencies such as rescue and relief operations.
• It crosses international boundaries easily, promoting world trade and tourism.

(b) Five problems limiting air transportation (Nigeria taken as the country)

• High cost - buying, fuelling and maintaining aircraft and building airports is very expensive, and fares are high.
• Shortage of skilled personnel such as pilots, engineers and air-traffic controllers.
• Poor and ageing equipment - outdated aircraft, navigational aids and airport facilities cause delays and accidents.
• Unfavourable weather - harmattan haze, fog and heavy rainstorms disrupt flights.
• Small carrying capacity - it cannot move bulky and heavy goods economically.
• Inadequate funding, poor maintenance culture and security concerns.

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(a) Sketch map of Nigeria

The sketch map below shows the required relief features and rivers in their correct relative positions.

(b) Location and size of Nigeria

• Nigeria is situated in West Africa, on the Gulf of Guinea.
• It lies approximately between latitudes 4°N and 14°N, giving a north-south extent of about 10°.
• It lies between longitudes 3°E and 15°E, giving an east-west extent of about 12°.
• It is bounded by the Republic of Benin in the west, Niger Republic in the north, Chad in the north-east, Cameroon in the east, and the Atlantic Ocean in the south.
• Nigeria has a total area of about 923,768 km².
• Its greatest east-west distance is about 1,300 km, while its greatest north-south distance is about 1,100 km.
• It is one of the largest countries in West Africa and is the most populous country in Africa.

(c) Economic importance of highlands in Nigeria

1. Agriculture: The relatively cool conditions on highlands favour the cultivation of crops such as Irish potato, vegetables, fruits and tea. They also provide grazing land for livestock.
2. Source of rivers and hydro-electric power: Highlands are important watershed areas from which many rivers rise. Fast-flowing streams descending steep slopes may be harnessed for hydro-electric power generation.
3. Tourism and recreation: Highland scenery, cool climate, waterfalls and wildlife attract tourists, creating employment and generating revenue.
4. Mineral extraction: Some highland areas contain valuable mineral deposits, such as tin and columbite on the Jos Plateau.
5. Communication and defence: High ground provides suitable sites for communication masts and strategic observation posts.

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(a) Outline map of Africa

(b) Importance of hydroelectric power to the economy of African countries

1. It supplies electricity for domestic uses such as lighting, cooking, refrigeration and communication.
2. It provides relatively cheap power for industries, thereby encouraging industrial development.
3. It creates employment opportunities during the construction, operation and maintenance of dams and power stations.
4. It generates revenue for governments through charges paid by electricity consumers and industries.
5. It earns foreign exchange when electricity is exported to neighbouring countries.
6. It promotes the growth of settlements and commercial activities around dam and power-station sites.
7. It provides power for irrigation pumping, mining, rail transport and other economic activities.

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(a)(i) Definition of migration

Migration is the more or less permanent movement of people from one place (their place of origin) to another (their destination), involving a change of residence.

(a)(ii) Four types of migration in Africa

• Rural-urban migration (from villages to towns).
• Rural-rural migration (from one farming area to another).
• Urban-rural migration (from towns back to villages).
• International migration (movement across national boundaries), which may be permanent, seasonal or in the form of nomadism.

(b) Four causes of migration in Africa

• Search for employment and higher incomes in towns and industrial centres.
• Better social amenities such as schools, hospitals and electricity in the towns.
• Pressure on land, poverty and low farm incomes in the rural areas (push factors).
• Wars, political instability, insecurity and natural disasters such as drought and flood.
• The pull of better educational and business opportunities.

(c) Three ways migration can be reduced in Africa

• Providing jobs and social amenities (schools, hospitals, electricity, good roads) in the rural areas to make them attractive.
• Developing agriculture and rural industries to raise farm incomes and keep people on the land.
• Ensuring peace, security and political stability to check the movement of refugees.
• Even development of all parts of the country so that opportunities are not concentrated in a few cities.

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(a) Sketch map of Nigeria

Key: the shaded area represents the North Central Highlands (Jos Plateau). The Rivers Niger and Benue are shown, with their confluence at Lokoja.

(b) Crops of the North Central Highlands

Export crops:

1. Cotton
2. Groundnut

Food crops:

1. Maize
2. Millet
3. Guinea corn
4. Rice

Other acceptable food crops include yam, beans, tomatoes, onions and Irish potatoes.

(c) Description of the North Central Highlands

(i) Agricultural activities

1. Food crops such as maize, millet, guinea corn, rice, yam and beans are cultivated.
2. Cash crops, especially cotton and groundnut, are grown.
3. The relatively cool conditions on the Jos Plateau favour Irish potatoes, vegetables and some temperate crops.
4. Mixed farming, mixed cropping and crop rotation are widely practised.
5. Cattle, sheep and goats are reared; poultry keeping is also important.
6. Irrigation farming is carried out in river valleys during the dry season.
7. Some farm produce, such as groundnut, cotton, tomatoes and grains, is processed locally.

(ii) Problems of development

1. The rugged and dissected relief makes the construction of roads, railways and other facilities difficult and expensive.
2. Soils are often thin, leached or eroded, while land damaged by tin mining reduces agricultural productivity.
3. Overgrazing and bush burning encourage soil erosion and land degradation.
4. Farming is mainly subsistence-based, with inadequate capital, machinery, improved seeds and storage facilities.
5. Pests, crop diseases and livestock diseases reduce output.
6. Rural-to-urban migration causes shortage of farm labour.
7. Poor transport links and long distances to major markets increase the cost of moving farm produce.
8. Seasonal rainfall, dry-season water shortage and occasional flooding restrict agricultural development in some areas.

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(a) Notes on settlement patterns

(i) Dispersed settlement

• This is a pattern in which houses or homesteads are scattered and stand far apart, each often on its own farmland.
• It is common in areas of individual land holding, fairly even distribution of water, and where security is not a serious problem.
• Each family lives on or near its farm, so the buildings are separated by fields.

(ii) Linear settlement

• This is a pattern in which buildings are strung out in a line, one behind the other.
• They develop along a line of communication such as a road, a railway, a river bank or the foot of a hill.
• The houses front the route and the settlement is long and narrow.

(b) Four factors that favour the location of settlements

• Availability of water - people settle where there is a reliable supply for drinking and farming.
• Fertile soil and good farmland that can support agriculture and feed the people.
• Favourable relief - flat or gently sloping, well-drained land that is easy to build on.
• Security and defence - safe sites such as hilltops in the past attracted settlers.
• Good means of communication and the presence of resources or trade opportunities.

(c) Three functions of urban settlement

• Administrative function - serving as seats of government and administration.
• Commercial function - acting as centres of trade, banking and markets.
• Industrial function - housing factories and manufacturing.
• Others include educational, medical, transport and cultural/religious functions.