WAEC SSCE - Economics - 2003
Vraag 1 Verslag
The shares which do not carry any fixed rate of dividend are known as
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The shares which do not carry any fixed rate of dividend are known as "ordinary shares". When a company issues ordinary shares, the shareholders who own them do not have any priority or preference over other shareholders in terms of receiving dividends or other payouts. Instead, their dividends are paid out of the company's profits, which are distributed among all shareholders according to the number of shares they own. The amount of dividend paid to ordinary shareholders can fluctuate depending on the company's financial performance, and there is no fixed rate of dividend. Ordinary shares are also called "common shares" or "equity shares".
Vraag 2 Verslag
The economic goals of public corporation is to
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The economic goals of a public corporation is to provide essential services. Public corporations are established by the government to provide services that are essential to the society. These services may not be profit-oriented, but they are necessary for the well-being of the people. Some examples of public corporations are public hospitals, schools, and utilities such as electricity and water supply. The main goal of these corporations is to provide affordable and accessible services to the public while ensuring quality and sustainability. Unlike private corporations, the profit motive is not the driving force of public corporations, but rather the provision of essential services.
Vraag 3 Verslag
Price elasticity supply measures the responsiveness of quantity supplied to
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Price elasticity of supply measures the degree of responsiveness or sensitivity of the quantity supplied of a commodity to a change in the price of the commodity itself. In other words, it indicates how much the quantity supplied of a product changes in response to a change in its own price. This helps to determine the extent to which producers can increase or decrease the supply of a commodity in response to changes in its price in the market. Price elasticity of supply is important for businesses and policymakers to consider when making decisions related to pricing and production levels.
Vraag 4 Verslag
It is necessary to estimate the national income of of a country because it
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Estimating the national income of a country is necessary because it indicates the overall performance of the economy. National income gives an idea about the total value of goods and services produced in a country within a specific period. By estimating the national income, we can analyze the growth and development of the economy, which helps in making economic policies and strategies. It also helps in assessing the standard of living of the people in the country. Additionally, it provides crucial information for investors, policymakers, and governments, as it assists them in identifying profitable ventures, making economic decisions, and conserving national resources. Finally, equitable distribution of wealth is also possible through proper estimation of national income as it enables the government to plan and execute social welfare programs for the benefit of the underprivileged.
Vraag 5 Verslag
Which of the following is part of the capital account of the balance of payments?
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Net investment from abroad is part of the capital account of the balance of payments. The capital account is a record of a country's international transactions in assets. It includes transactions such as foreign investment in the domestic economy, domestic investment in foreign economies, and changes in foreign exchange reserves held by the central bank. Net investment from abroad is a measure of the difference between foreign investment in the domestic economy and domestic investment in foreign economies. It includes items such as foreign direct investment, portfolio investment, and other investments such as loans and currency reserves. The other options mentioned, such as import of machinery, insurance, and transportation costs, are typically categorized as part of the current account, which records transactions related to trade in goods and services.
Vraag 6 Verslag
Which of the following is a direct tax?
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A direct tax is a tax that is directly levied on individuals or organizations by the government. Personal income tax is an example of a direct tax because it is a tax on the income earned by individuals. The tax is paid directly to the government by the individuals or their employers. Therefore, the correct option is personal income tax.
Vraag 7 Verslag
The demand for money is
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The demand for money refers to the amount of money that individuals and businesses are willing and able to hold at any given time. This demand is based on the need for money to make transactions or purchases, as well as for precautionary reasons such as savings for emergencies. It is called derived demand because it is derived from the demand for goods and services. As the level of income and economic activity increases, the demand for money also increases. Conversely, when income and economic activity decrease, the demand for money decreases.
Vraag 8 Verslag
The most common index for measuring developments is
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The most common index for measuring developments is the per capita income. This index is used to measure the economic development of a country or region by dividing the total income of that area by its total population. It provides a measure of the average income per person and is widely used as an indicator of a country's standard of living and economic growth. By looking at the per capita income, policymakers can make informed decisions about economic policies and development programs.
Vraag 9 Verslag
Efficient distribution of goods in West Africa will be facilitated by
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Efficient distribution of goods in West Africa will be facilitated by an adequate transportation system. This is because a good transportation system allows for the smooth movement of goods from one location to another. With a well-developed transportation system, goods can be easily transported from the production centers to the markets, thereby reducing the cost of transportation and the time taken to move goods. This will in turn lead to a reduction in the cost of goods and increase access to goods, which can improve the standard of living of people in West Africa.
Vraag 10 Verslag
Government of West African countries levy taxes to
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Governments of West African countries levy taxes to finance government projects. Taxes are a major source of revenue for governments and they are collected from individuals and businesses. These funds are then used to finance government projects such as infrastructure development, education, healthcare, and social welfare programs. Taxes are essential for ensuring that governments have the necessary resources to provide essential services and improve the standard of living of their citizens. Without taxes, governments would not have the means to carry out their duties and responsibilities.
Vraag 11 Verslag
The term underpopulation refers to a situation where the population is
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Underpopulation refers to a situation where the population is small in relation to available resources. This means that there are fewer people living in a particular area compared to the available resources such as land, water, and other essential resources. This can lead to underutilization of resources and can also lead to slow economic growth as there may not be enough people to utilize the available resources. Underpopulation can be seen as an opportunity for development if proper planning and management are implemented to ensure sustainable use of resources.
Vraag 12 Verslag
which of the following is an advantage of localization of industry?
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An advantage of localization of industry is the development of subsidiary firms. When industries are concentrated in a particular region, it leads to the growth of subsidiary firms that provide goods and services to support the industries. These subsidiary firms can include suppliers, manufacturers of parts and components, service providers, and so on. This creates a network of interdependent firms that support and enhance each other's operations, leading to greater efficiency, innovation, and competitiveness. The development of subsidiary firms also creates job opportunities and contributes to the overall economic growth of the region. Therefore, the development of subsidiary firms is an advantage of the localization of industry.
Vraag 13 Verslag
The market supply curve slopes upwards from left to right indicating that
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The market supply curve slopes upwards from left to right indicating that at a higher price, more is supplied and at a lower price, less is supplied. The upward slope of the supply curve indicates that as the price of a good or service increases, producers are willing to supply more of it, and as the price decreases, they are willing to supply less of it. This is because producers are motivated by profit, and higher prices lead to higher profits, making it more attractive to supply more of the good or service. Conversely, lower prices mean lower profits, which make it less attractive to supply the good or service. Therefore, the upward slope of the market supply curve indicates that at a higher price, more is supplied, and at a lower price, less is supplied.
Vraag 14 Verslag
which of the following is necessary for the survival of small firms in West Africa?
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Vraag 15 Verslag
The problem of scarcity is reduced by
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The problem of scarcity arises when the resources available to produce goods and services are limited in comparison to the unlimited wants and needs of people. The reduction of this problem is done by ensuring efficient allocation of resources. This means that the available resources are used in the most effective and efficient manner to produce goods and services that are most needed and wanted by the society. By doing this, the available resources can be utilized to their fullest potential, and the needs of people can be met to the best possible extent. Controlling consumption of goods and services and restricting consumer choice and taste are not effective ways to reduce the problem of scarcity, as these measures can lead to dissatisfaction and inefficiency in the allocation of resources. Producing everything needed by the consumers is not possible due to the limited nature of resources, and thus is not a feasible solution to the problem of scarcity.
Vraag 16 Verslag
West African countries experience rapid population growth due to
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West African countries experience rapid population growth due to "early marriages". Early marriages are a common practice in many West African countries, where girls are often married off at a young age. Early marriage can lead to higher fertility rates as girls may start having children at a young age and have more children over their lifetime. This, combined with the fact that people are living longer due to improvements in healthcare, results in a rapidly growing population. Additionally, there may be cultural or religious factors that contribute to a preference for larger families, further increasing the fertility rate. Therefore, the correct option is "early marriages".
Vraag 17 Verslag
The reward for labour is
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The reward for labor is a wage. A wage is a payment made by an employer to an employee for the work done. It is usually paid on a regular basis, such as hourly, daily, or weekly. The amount of wage paid is determined by several factors, such as the type of work done, the skill required for the job, the level of experience of the worker, and prevailing market conditions. Wage is the main source of income for workers and is essential for their survival and well-being.
Vraag 18 Verslag
Public expenditure on on education and health is known as expenditure on
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Public expenditure on education and health is known as expenditure on social services. This is because the government spends money on education and health to provide basic services to the society, promote human development and improve the standard of living of its citizens. Social services are aimed at meeting the social welfare needs of the population such as healthcare, education, housing, and social security. These services are essential for the well-being and development of the society, and are not intended to generate revenue or profits for the government.
Vraag 19 Verslag
A continuous fall in the general price level is called
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A continuous fall in the general price level is called deflation. It is a macroeconomic term that describes a persistent decrease in the price of goods and services over time. Deflation occurs when there is a decrease in demand for goods and services relative to supply. This decrease in demand leads to a decrease in prices, as producers and sellers try to attract customers by lowering their prices. Deflation can have negative effects on the economy, as it can lead to decreased spending, lower investment, and higher unemployment. Therefore, a continuous fall in the general price level is called deflation.
Vraag 20 Verslag
A normal demand curve slopes
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A normal demand curve slopes downwards from left to right. This means that as the price of a product decreases, the quantity demanded of that product increases. Conversely, as the price of a product increases, the quantity demanded of that product decreases. This is because people generally want to buy more of a product when it is cheaper, and less of a product when it is more expensive. Therefore, the demand curve shows the relationship between the price of a product and the quantity of that product that consumers are willing and able to buy at each price level.
Vraag 21 Verslag
When the demand for foreign exchange exceeds its supply, the value of the domestic currency
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When the demand for foreign exchange exceeds its supply, the value of the domestic currency depreciates. This means that the domestic currency loses value compared to the foreign currency, making imports more expensive and exports more competitive. In other words, if there is more demand for foreign goods than the domestic country can afford to buy, they will need to exchange more of their currency to buy foreign currency to pay for those goods. As a result, the excess demand for foreign currency causes the value of the domestic currency to decrease. This can have both positive and negative effects on the economy, depending on factors such as the level of exports, inflation, and interest rates.
Vraag 23 Verslag
Precautionary motive relates to
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The precautionary motive relates to the demand for money. It refers to the desire of individuals and firms to hold money as a precautionary measure against unexpected future expenses or emergencies. This motive for holding money is based on the need for a financial cushion to protect against unforeseen events that might require immediate access to funds. The greater the uncertainty and risk of future events, the greater the demand for precautionary money holdings.
Vraag 25 Verslag
when the total products is at its maximum marginal products is
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When the total product is at its maximum, the marginal product is zero. Marginal product refers to the additional output that is produced when an additional unit of input is added while keeping all other inputs constant. As more and more units of input are added, the marginal product eventually starts to decline. When the total product reaches its maximum point, the marginal product is zero, which means that no additional output is produced by adding an additional unit of input. Therefore, the correct answer is "zero".
Vraag 26 Verslag
Which of the following factors of production consists of man made goods?
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The factor of production that consists of man-made goods is capital. Capital refers to all man-made goods used in the production process, such as machinery, tools, buildings, and equipment. These goods are used to produce other goods and services and are not consumed in the production process. Therefore, capital is a man-made factor of production that is used to enhance the efficiency of the production process.
Vraag 27 Verslag
Economic as a field of study is a
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Economics is a social science that studies how individuals, organizations, and societies allocate scarce resources to meet their unlimited wants and needs. It focuses on the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Unlike physical sciences, economics deals with human behavior, which is often unpredictable and influenced by cultural, social, and political factors. Economics also includes the study of government policies, international trade, and financial markets, among other topics. Therefore, the correct answer is social science.
Vraag 28 Verslag
Which of the following is a type of business organization?
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The type of business organization among the given options is "co-operatives". A co-operative is a type of business organization that is owned and controlled by its members, who share in the profits and decision-making. Co-operatives can be formed by individuals or businesses that come together to meet their common economic, social, and cultural needs and aspirations. Members of a co-operative have equal voting rights and contribute to the co-operative's capital. The profits made by the co-operative are distributed among the members in proportion to their participation. Therefore, the correct answer is "co-operatives".
Vraag 29 Verslag
Invisible trade refers to trade in
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Invisible trade refers to the trade in services that are not physically tangible or visible. These services include things like transportation, tourism, banking, insurance, consulting, and other types of services. Unlike visible trade, which involves the physical movement of goods, invisible trade involves the exchange of intangible services between countries. Invisible trade is an important component of international trade as it enables countries to trade services that they may not be able to produce domestically or can produce at a lower cost.
Vraag 30 Verslag
The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is an example of a
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The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is an example of a cartel. A cartel is a group of firms or countries that come together to control the production and pricing of a particular product in order to maximize profits. OPEC is made up of 14 countries that produce a significant portion of the world's oil, and they work together to control the supply of oil in order to keep prices high. By coordinating their production levels, OPEC can influence the global price of oil, which has a significant impact on the world economy.
Vraag 31 Verslag
one major function of the entrepreneur is
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One major function of the entrepreneur is bearing of risks. Entrepreneurs are individuals who undertake risks associated with the production and distribution of goods and services. They create new businesses or expand existing ones, develop innovative products or services, and take calculated risks to achieve their goals. Bearing risks involves taking on the uncertainties and potential losses associated with business ventures, such as fluctuations in demand, changes in market conditions, and unexpected expenses. Successful entrepreneurs are able to manage and mitigate these risks while still achieving their objectives.
Vraag 32 Verslag
The most common type of business in West African countries is
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The most common type of business in West African countries is the sole proprietorship. This is because it is the simplest form of business that can be established by an individual, and it requires a relatively small amount of capital to start. In a sole proprietorship, the owner has full control over the business and is personally responsible for all its debts and obligations. The business and the owner are considered to be the same legal entity. Sole proprietorships are common in sectors such as agriculture, retail, and small-scale manufacturing in West Africa.
Vraag 33 Verslag
which of the following is not an advantage of tubular presentation of data?
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The option that is not an advantage of tubular presentation of data is "occupy more space than mathematical equations". Tubular presentation of data is a way of presenting data in rows and columns, much like a table. It has several advantages, including enabling easy location of required figures, making for easy comparison of figures, and showing whether the figures are increasing or decreasing. However, the disadvantage of tubular presentation of data is that it may occupy more space than mathematical equations, making it less efficient in some cases where space is limited or when a lot of data needs to be presented in a small area. Therefore, the correct option is "occupy more space than mathematical equations".
Vraag 35 Verslag
Marginal cost can be derived from the
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Marginal cost can be derived from the "total cost". Marginal cost refers to the additional cost incurred when one extra unit of a product is produced or sold. The total cost is the sum of all the costs incurred in producing a certain number of units. Therefore, if we calculate the total cost for producing n units of a product and then calculate the total cost for producing n+1 units, the difference between the two total costs will give us the marginal cost of producing the extra unit. This is because the additional cost incurred in producing the extra unit is the difference between the total cost of producing n+1 units and the total cost of producing n units. Therefore, the correct option is "total cost".
Vraag 36 Verslag
one advantage of the sole proprietor is that
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A sole proprietorship is a type of business that is owned and operated by a single individual. One advantage of the sole proprietor is that control and supervision are under one man, meaning that the owner has complete autonomy over decision-making and operations. This allows for quick and efficient decision-making without the need for consultation with others. Additionally, the owner is able to keep all profits earned by the business, and is not required to publish accounts or financial information to the public. However, it is important to note that the success of the business is not guaranteed, and funds may not always be easy to obtain.
Vraag 37 Verslag
one of the factors responsible for low agricultural production in West Africa is
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Agriculture is an important sector of the economy in West Africa. However, the region experiences low agricultural production due to several factors. One of these factors is inadequate research. This means that there is not enough investment in research activities that could enhance the productivity of the sector. Research is essential in identifying best practices, developing new and improved farming techniques, and addressing challenges that farmers face. Without adequate research, farmers in West Africa may continue to rely on traditional methods that may not be efficient or sustainable. As a result, agricultural productivity may remain low, making it difficult for the sector to contribute significantly to the region's economic development.
Vraag 38 Verslag
The most important function of merchant banks is the
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Merchant banks are financial institutions that provide a wide range of services to businesses and individuals. Their most important function is to provide financial assistance to companies in the form of loans and investments, especially in the medium to long term. This assistance can be in the form of short-term loans for working capital or long-term loans for capital investments such as infrastructure projects, mergers and acquisitions, and expansion plans. Merchant banks also offer other services such as underwriting, advisory services, and asset management. In summary, the most important function of merchant banks is to provide financial assistance to companies in the form of medium to long term loans and investments, which can help businesses grow and create more jobs.
Vraag 39 Verslag
A major problem facing the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) as an economic integration , is the
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A major problem facing the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) as an economic integration is the weak trade relations among member states. ECOWAS was created to promote economic cooperation among its member states by facilitating the free movement of people, goods, and services across borders. However, trade among ECOWAS member states has remained relatively low, and intra-regional trade barriers continue to exist, including tariffs and non-tariff barriers. This has made it difficult for member states to fully take advantage of the benefits of the integration, such as economies of scale, and has hindered the development of regional value chains. Therefore, the correct answer is "weak trade relations".
Vraag 40 Verslag
The additional satisfaction derived from the consumption of one or more unit of a good is called
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The additional satisfaction or benefit obtained from consuming one or more units of a good or service is known as marginal utility. Marginal utility helps to measure the satisfaction gained from each additional unit of a product consumed, and it diminishes as consumption increases. This concept is essential in understanding consumer behavior and decision-making regarding purchases. The goal of rational consumers is to maximize their total utility or satisfaction from the goods and services they consume, which requires considering the marginal utility and price of each unit.
Vraag 41 Verslag
In a socialist economy, the means of productions owned and controlled by the
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In a socialist economy, the means of production are owned and controlled by the state. This means that the government owns and controls all the industries, businesses, and resources within the country. In a socialist economy, the government makes decisions about how resources are allocated and how goods and services are produced and distributed. The aim of a socialist economy is to promote equality and eliminate poverty and social inequality by ensuring that resources are distributed fairly. Therefore, the correct answer is "state".
Vraag 42 Verslag
The tax whose rate increase as the level of income increases is known as
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The tax whose rate increases as the level of income increases is known as a progressive tax. This means that the tax rate increases as the taxable income increases, resulting in a higher percentage of tax being paid by those with higher incomes. The idea behind this tax system is to achieve greater income equality and to make the tax system more fair by having those who can afford to pay more contribute a larger percentage of their income towards taxes. In contrast, regressive taxes have a higher percentage of tax being paid by those with lower incomes, while proportional taxes have a fixed tax rate regardless of the level of income. Company tax, on the other hand, is a tax on the profits made by companies.
Vraag 44 Verslag
which of the following could be used to measure the efficiency of labour?
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The input-output ratio could be used to measure the efficiency of labour. This ratio compares the amount of input used to produce a certain amount of output. In other words, it measures how much input, such as labour, capital, and materials, is required to produce a given amount of output. If the input-output ratio is low, it means that less input is needed to produce the same amount of output, which indicates higher labour efficiency. For example, if a factory can produce 100 units of a product using 10 workers and another factory can produce the same 100 units using only 8 workers, the second factory is more efficient because it uses less labour input to produce the same output. Therefore, the input-output ratio is a useful measure for assessing the efficiency of labour.
Vraag 45 Verslag
The major agents of economics system are
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The major agents of an economic system are individuals, firms, and government. Individuals play a critical role in the economy as consumers and workers. They buy goods and services from firms, and work for firms to earn a living. Firms, on the other hand, produce goods and services for consumers to buy and employ individuals to work for them. Government is also a significant agent of the economic system. It regulates and controls the activities of individuals and firms, provides public goods and services such as healthcare and education, and influences the economy through its fiscal and monetary policies. Thus, these three agents - individuals, firms, and government - interact with each other in a complex web of economic activities that make up the economy.
Vraag 46 Verslag
money becomes a very poor store of value in a period of
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Money becomes a very poor store of value in a period of inflation. Inflation is a sustained increase in the general price level of goods and services in an economy over time, which reduces the purchasing power of money. As prices rise, the value of money decreases, and the money that is saved or held loses its purchasing power over time. This makes it difficult to store wealth in the form of money, and people may look to alternative investments or stores of value to protect their wealth against inflation.
Vraag 47 Verslag
If the quantity demanded of a commodity increases from 20 to 30 units where there is an increase in price from 4naira to 5 naira, the elasticity of demand is
Vraag 48 Verslag
Cost-push inflation is likely to raise when
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Cost-push inflation refers to a situation where the general price level increases due to an increase in production costs, such as labor or raw materials. When there is an increase in demand for higher wages and it is granted, the cost of production increases. Consequently, companies would increase the prices of goods and services to maintain their profit margins, which results in cost-push inflation. Thus, demand for higher wages being granted is likely to raise cost-push inflation.
Vraag 49 Verslag
Explain any four of the following terms:
(a) Nationalization
(b) Commercialization
(c) Privatization
(d) Indigenization
(e) Joint Ventures.
(a) Nationalisation is the taking over of the ownership and control of privately owned businesses or industries by the government, so that they become public enterprises run in the public interest. Owners are usually paid compensation.
(b) Commercialisation is the reorganisation of a government-owned enterprise so that it is run on business (profit-making) principles like a private firm, becoming financially self-sustaining without government subsidy, while ownership remains partly or wholly with the government.
(c) Privatisation is the transfer of the ownership and control of a public (government-owned) enterprise, wholly or partly, to private individuals or companies, usually through the sale of shares, so as to improve efficiency and reduce the burden on government.
(d) Indigenisation is a policy that transfers the ownership and control of enterprises (especially those formerly owned by foreigners) to the citizens (indigenes) of a country, so that nationals participate more fully in the economy, as under Nigeria's Indigenisation Decrees.
(e) Joint ventures are business arrangements in which two or more parties (for example the government and private investors, or local and foreign firms) jointly own, finance, manage and share the profits and risks of an enterprise.
Any four, clearly explained, earn full marks.
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(a) Nationalisation is the taking over of the ownership and control of privately owned businesses or industries by the government, so that they become public enterprises run in the public interest. Owners are usually paid compensation.
(b) Commercialisation is the reorganisation of a government-owned enterprise so that it is run on business (profit-making) principles like a private firm, becoming financially self-sustaining without government subsidy, while ownership remains partly or wholly with the government.
(c) Privatisation is the transfer of the ownership and control of a public (government-owned) enterprise, wholly or partly, to private individuals or companies, usually through the sale of shares, so as to improve efficiency and reduce the burden on government.
(d) Indigenisation is a policy that transfers the ownership and control of enterprises (especially those formerly owned by foreigners) to the citizens (indigenes) of a country, so that nationals participate more fully in the economy, as under Nigeria's Indigenisation Decrees.
(e) Joint ventures are business arrangements in which two or more parties (for example the government and private investors, or local and foreign firms) jointly own, finance, manage and share the profits and risks of an enterprise.
Any four, clearly explained, earn full marks.
Vraag 50 Verslag
(a) Why is the scale of preference important
(b) Explain the concept, opportunity cost.
(c) State the opportunity cost in each of the following actions:
(i) A shirt was purchased for N500.00 instead of a pair of shoes.
(ii) Onions were planted on a farm realizing N20,000.00 instead of maize that could have realized N25,000.00
(a) Importance of the scale of preference. A scale of preference is a list of a person's wants arranged in order of their importance or urgency, from the most pressing to the least. It is important because human wants are unlimited while the means (income and resources) to satisfy them are limited. By ranking wants, the individual can satisfy the most urgent needs first with the scarce resources available, make rational choices, avoid waste, and know clearly what is being given up. It is therefore the basis of choice and of measuring opportunity cost.
(b) Opportunity cost. Opportunity cost (or real cost) is the value of the next best alternative that is forgone when a choice is made. Because resources are scarce, choosing one thing means sacrificing another; the alternative given up is the true cost of the decision. For example, if a farmer uses land to grow yam, the opportunity cost is the cassava he could have grown on that same land instead.
(c) Stating the opportunity cost:
- (i) A shirt bought for N500 instead of a pair of shoes: the opportunity cost is the pair of shoes that had to be given up.
- (ii) Onions grown realising N20,000 instead of maize that could have realised N25,000: the opportunity cost is the maize (worth N25,000) that was forgone.
Antwoorddetails
(a) Importance of the scale of preference. A scale of preference is a list of a person's wants arranged in order of their importance or urgency, from the most pressing to the least. It is important because human wants are unlimited while the means (income and resources) to satisfy them are limited. By ranking wants, the individual can satisfy the most urgent needs first with the scarce resources available, make rational choices, avoid waste, and know clearly what is being given up. It is therefore the basis of choice and of measuring opportunity cost.
(b) Opportunity cost. Opportunity cost (or real cost) is the value of the next best alternative that is forgone when a choice is made. Because resources are scarce, choosing one thing means sacrificing another; the alternative given up is the true cost of the decision. For example, if a farmer uses land to grow yam, the opportunity cost is the cassava he could have grown on that same land instead.
(c) Stating the opportunity cost:
- (i) A shirt bought for N500 instead of a pair of shoes: the opportunity cost is the pair of shoes that had to be given up.
- (ii) Onions grown realising N20,000 instead of maize that could have realised N25,000: the opportunity cost is the maize (worth N25,000) that was forgone.
Vraag 51 Verslag
(a) Distinguish between cost-push inflation and demand pull inflation.
(b) Explain any four ways of controlling inflation.
(a) Cost-push vs demand-pull inflation.
Cost-push inflation is a persistent rise in the general price level caused by rising costs of production. When wages, raw materials, energy or import prices rise, producers pass on the higher costs by raising prices, so it originates from the supply (cost) side.
Demand-pull inflation is a persistent rise in the general price level caused by total demand growing faster than the supply of goods and services (too much money chasing too few goods). It is pulled up by excess aggregate demand, often from increased money supply, government spending or exports.
In short, cost-push comes from higher production costs (supply side), while demand-pull comes from excess demand (demand side).
(b) Ways of controlling inflation:
- Monetary policy: the Central Bank reduces the money supply by raising the bank rate, selling securities (open market operations) and raising the reserve/liquidity ratios, so that less money chases goods.
- Fiscal policy: the government reduces its spending and/or raises taxes to cut excess purchasing power (aggregate demand).
- Increasing output/supply: encouraging greater production of goods and services (and imports of scarce goods) so that supply matches demand.
- Price and income (wage) control: the government fixes maximum prices and restrains wage increases to keep costs and prices down.
Any four, well explained, are acceptable.
Antwoorddetails
(a) Cost-push vs demand-pull inflation.
Cost-push inflation is a persistent rise in the general price level caused by rising costs of production. When wages, raw materials, energy or import prices rise, producers pass on the higher costs by raising prices, so it originates from the supply (cost) side.
Demand-pull inflation is a persistent rise in the general price level caused by total demand growing faster than the supply of goods and services (too much money chasing too few goods). It is pulled up by excess aggregate demand, often from increased money supply, government spending or exports.
In short, cost-push comes from higher production costs (supply side), while demand-pull comes from excess demand (demand side).
(b) Ways of controlling inflation:
- Monetary policy: the Central Bank reduces the money supply by raising the bank rate, selling securities (open market operations) and raising the reserve/liquidity ratios, so that less money chases goods.
- Fiscal policy: the government reduces its spending and/or raises taxes to cut excess purchasing power (aggregate demand).
- Increasing output/supply: encouraging greater production of goods and services (and imports of scarce goods) so that supply matches demand.
- Price and income (wage) control: the government fixes maximum prices and restrains wage increases to keep costs and prices down.
Any four, well explained, are acceptable.
Vraag 52 Verslag
The table below shows the tax payments of four income earners in a year. Use the information in the table to answer the questions that follow.
| Income Earners | Income Base | tax | Payments |
| N | N | ||
| A | B | ||
| Jawara | 15,000.00 | 1,500.00 | 1,200.00 |
| Ade | 25,000.00 | 2,000.00 | 2,000.00 |
| Eke | 32,000.00 | 3,200.00 | 2,240.00 |
| Audu | 60,000.00 | 6,000.00 | 3,000.00 |
(a) Determine the percentage rate of taxation paid by
(i) Jawara in columns A and B.
(ii) Audu in columns A and B.
(iii) Ade in columns B.
(iv) Eke in column B
(b)(i) Identify the systems of taxation employed in columns A and B.
(ii) Which of the income earners have the least burden under column B?
(c) (i) If government increases its rate of taxation to 15% flat rate, how much revenue will be generated from the payees?
(ii) At 15% flat rate taxation, calculate the disposable incomes of Messrs Jawara, Ade, Eke and Audu.
Percentage tax rate \(=\dfrac{\text{tax}}{\text{income}}\times 100\). Column A = base tax, Column B = payments.
(a) Percentage rates
- (i) Jawara: A \(=\dfrac{1500}{15000}\times 100 = 10\%\); B \(=\dfrac{1200}{15000}\times 100 = 8\%\)
- (ii) Audu: A \(=\dfrac{6000}{60000}\times 100 = 10\%\); B \(=\dfrac{3000}{60000}\times 100 = 5\%\)
- (iii) Ade, column B \(=\dfrac{2000}{25000}\times 100 = 8\%\)
- (iv) Eke, column B \(=\dfrac{2240}{32000}\times 100 = 7\%\)
(b)(i) Systems of taxation
Column A applies the same rate (about 10%) to every earner regardless of income, so it is proportional taxation. In column B the rate falls as income rises (Jawara 8%, Ade 8%, Eke 7%, Audu 5%), so column B is regressive taxation.
(ii) Under column B the earner with the least burden is Audu, paying the lowest rate (5%).
(c)(i) Revenue at a 15% flat rate
Total income \(= 15000 + 25000 + 32000 + 60000 = 132000\).
\[0.15\times 132000 = \text{N}19{,}800\]
(ii) Disposable income = income minus the 15% tax:
| Earner | Income (N) | Tax at 15% (N) | Disposable income (N) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Jawara | 15,000 | 2,250 | 12,750 |
| Ade | 25,000 | 3,750 | 21,250 |
| Eke | 32,000 | 4,800 | 27,200 |
| Audu | 60,000 | 9,000 | 51,000 |
Antwoorddetails
Percentage tax rate \(=\dfrac{\text{tax}}{\text{income}}\times 100\). Column A = base tax, Column B = payments.
(a) Percentage rates
- (i) Jawara: A \(=\dfrac{1500}{15000}\times 100 = 10\%\); B \(=\dfrac{1200}{15000}\times 100 = 8\%\)
- (ii) Audu: A \(=\dfrac{6000}{60000}\times 100 = 10\%\); B \(=\dfrac{3000}{60000}\times 100 = 5\%\)
- (iii) Ade, column B \(=\dfrac{2000}{25000}\times 100 = 8\%\)
- (iv) Eke, column B \(=\dfrac{2240}{32000}\times 100 = 7\%\)
(b)(i) Systems of taxation
Column A applies the same rate (about 10%) to every earner regardless of income, so it is proportional taxation. In column B the rate falls as income rises (Jawara 8%, Ade 8%, Eke 7%, Audu 5%), so column B is regressive taxation.
(ii) Under column B the earner with the least burden is Audu, paying the lowest rate (5%).
(c)(i) Revenue at a 15% flat rate
Total income \(= 15000 + 25000 + 32000 + 60000 = 132000\).
\[0.15\times 132000 = \text{N}19{,}800\]
(ii) Disposable income = income minus the 15% tax:
| Earner | Income (N) | Tax at 15% (N) | Disposable income (N) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Jawara | 15,000 | 2,250 | 12,750 |
| Ade | 25,000 | 3,750 | 21,250 |
| Eke | 32,000 | 4,800 | 27,200 |
| Audu | 60,000 | 9,000 | 51,000 |
Vraag 53 Verslag
(a) Explain the term economic integration.
(b) Highlight any four problems of economic integration in West Africa.
(a) Economic integration is an arrangement whereby two or more countries agree to co-operate and combine parts of their economies by reducing or removing trade and other barriers among themselves, in order to form a larger economic unit and share mutual benefits such as a wider market, freer movement of goods, and faster development. ECOWAS is a West African example.
(b) Problems of economic integration in West Africa:
- Differences in currency: member states use different currencies (naira, cedi, CFA franc, etc.), which complicates trade and payments among them.
- Production of similar goods: most members are primary producers of similar agricultural and mineral products, so they compete rather than complement one another, limiting intra-regional trade.
- Poor transport and communication links: inadequate roads, railways and communication between member countries hinder the movement of goods and people.
- Language and colonial differences: the mix of English, French and Portuguese speaking states with different legal and administrative systems makes cooperation difficult.
- Unequal levels of development / fear of domination: less developed members fear that stronger economies will dominate, so they hesitate to remove barriers.
- Political instability and lack of political will: frequent changes of government, conflicts and reluctance to surrender sovereignty weaken commitment to agreements.
- Loss of revenue from tariffs: removing import duties on intra-community trade reduces government revenue, discouraging full participation.
Any four, well explained, are acceptable.
Antwoorddetails
(a) Economic integration is an arrangement whereby two or more countries agree to co-operate and combine parts of their economies by reducing or removing trade and other barriers among themselves, in order to form a larger economic unit and share mutual benefits such as a wider market, freer movement of goods, and faster development. ECOWAS is a West African example.
(b) Problems of economic integration in West Africa:
- Differences in currency: member states use different currencies (naira, cedi, CFA franc, etc.), which complicates trade and payments among them.
- Production of similar goods: most members are primary producers of similar agricultural and mineral products, so they compete rather than complement one another, limiting intra-regional trade.
- Poor transport and communication links: inadequate roads, railways and communication between member countries hinder the movement of goods and people.
- Language and colonial differences: the mix of English, French and Portuguese speaking states with different legal and administrative systems makes cooperation difficult.
- Unequal levels of development / fear of domination: less developed members fear that stronger economies will dominate, so they hesitate to remove barriers.
- Political instability and lack of political will: frequent changes of government, conflicts and reluctance to surrender sovereignty weaken commitment to agreements.
- Loss of revenue from tariffs: removing import duties on intra-community trade reduces government revenue, discouraging full participation.
Any four, well explained, are acceptable.
Vraag 54 Verslag
Why do government conduct population census?
A population census is the official counting of all the people living in a country at a particular time, together with information about their characteristics. Governments conduct it for the following reasons:
- To know the total size of the population and its rate of growth, which is basic to all national planning.
- For economic and development planning: to plan the provision of schools, hospitals, roads, housing, water and other social amenities according to numbers.
- To know the distribution of the population: by age, sex, occupation and geographical area, which guides policy on employment, health and education.
- To estimate the size of the labour force: the number of people available for work, needed for manpower planning.
- For revenue and budgeting: to help plan taxation and the sharing of national revenue and resources among regions.
- For political and administrative purposes: to determine the number of electoral constituencies, seats and representation, and to delimit boundaries.
- To determine population density: and detect problems of over-population or under-population in different areas.
- For international relations and aid: reliable data help in dealings with, and assistance from, other countries and international bodies.
Antwoorddetails
A population census is the official counting of all the people living in a country at a particular time, together with information about their characteristics. Governments conduct it for the following reasons:
- To know the total size of the population and its rate of growth, which is basic to all national planning.
- For economic and development planning: to plan the provision of schools, hospitals, roads, housing, water and other social amenities according to numbers.
- To know the distribution of the population: by age, sex, occupation and geographical area, which guides policy on employment, health and education.
- To estimate the size of the labour force: the number of people available for work, needed for manpower planning.
- For revenue and budgeting: to help plan taxation and the sharing of national revenue and resources among regions.
- For political and administrative purposes: to determine the number of electoral constituencies, seats and representation, and to delimit boundaries.
- To determine population density: and detect problems of over-population or under-population in different areas.
- For international relations and aid: reliable data help in dealings with, and assistance from, other countries and international bodies.
Vraag 55 Verslag
In what ways is foreign trade different from domestic trade?
Foreign (international) trade is trade between different countries, while domestic (internal or home) trade is trade within the same country. They differ in the following ways:
- Currency used: domestic trade uses one national currency; foreign trade involves different currencies, so it requires foreign exchange and exchange rates.
- Trade barriers: foreign trade faces tariffs, quotas, customs duties and other restrictions at national borders; domestic trade is generally free of such barriers.
- Distance and transport: foreign trade usually covers longer distances and greater transport and insurance costs (often by sea or air) than domestic trade.
- Documentation: foreign trade needs many documents (bill of lading, invoice, certificate of origin, import/export licences); domestic trade needs far fewer.
- Mobility of factors: labour and capital move fairly freely within a country but face immigration and legal barriers between countries.
- Risks: foreign trade carries extra risks such as exchange-rate fluctuations, political changes and longer delivery times.
- Language, laws and culture: foreign trade deals with different languages, legal systems, weights, measures and business customs; domestic trade shares a common framework.
- Government control and policy: foreign trade is more closely regulated (balance of payments, exchange control) than domestic trade.
Antwoorddetails
Foreign (international) trade is trade between different countries, while domestic (internal or home) trade is trade within the same country. They differ in the following ways:
- Currency used: domestic trade uses one national currency; foreign trade involves different currencies, so it requires foreign exchange and exchange rates.
- Trade barriers: foreign trade faces tariffs, quotas, customs duties and other restrictions at national borders; domestic trade is generally free of such barriers.
- Distance and transport: foreign trade usually covers longer distances and greater transport and insurance costs (often by sea or air) than domestic trade.
- Documentation: foreign trade needs many documents (bill of lading, invoice, certificate of origin, import/export licences); domestic trade needs far fewer.
- Mobility of factors: labour and capital move fairly freely within a country but face immigration and legal barriers between countries.
- Risks: foreign trade carries extra risks such as exchange-rate fluctuations, political changes and longer delivery times.
- Language, laws and culture: foreign trade deals with different languages, legal systems, weights, measures and business customs; domestic trade shares a common framework.
- Government control and policy: foreign trade is more closely regulated (balance of payments, exchange control) than domestic trade.
Vraag 56 Verslag
(a) What is price elasticity of demand?
(b) With carefully labeled diagrams, illustrate each of the following:
(i) perfectly inelastic demand
(ii) unitary elastic demand
(iii) fairly elastic demand
(iv) perfectly elastic demand.
(a) Meaning of price elasticity of demand
Price elasticity of demand is the degree of responsiveness of quantity demanded to a change in the price of a commodity, other factors remaining constant. It is measured as:
\[E_d=\frac{\%\text{ change in quantity demanded}}{\%\text{ change in price}}\]
(b) Diagrams of types of price elasticity of demand
(i) Perfectly inelastic demand: Quantity demanded remains unchanged whatever the change in price. Thus, \(E_d=0\), and the demand curve is vertical.
(ii) Unitary elastic demand: The percentage change in quantity demanded is exactly equal to the percentage change in price. Thus, \(E_d=1\). The demand curve is a rectangular hyperbola, so that total expenditure, \(P\times Q\), remains constant at every point on the curve.
(iii) Fairly elastic demand: A small percentage change in price causes a more than proportionate percentage change in quantity demanded. Thus, \(E_d>1\). The demand curve is relatively flat.
(iv) Perfectly elastic demand: At a given price, consumers will buy any quantity, but a slight increase in price reduces quantity demanded to zero. Thus, \(E_d=\infty\), and the demand curve is horizontal.
Antwoorddetails
(a) Meaning of price elasticity of demand
Price elasticity of demand is the degree of responsiveness of quantity demanded to a change in the price of a commodity, other factors remaining constant. It is measured as:
\[E_d=\frac{\%\text{ change in quantity demanded}}{\%\text{ change in price}}\]
(b) Diagrams of types of price elasticity of demand
(i) Perfectly inelastic demand: Quantity demanded remains unchanged whatever the change in price. Thus, \(E_d=0\), and the demand curve is vertical.
(ii) Unitary elastic demand: The percentage change in quantity demanded is exactly equal to the percentage change in price. Thus, \(E_d=1\). The demand curve is a rectangular hyperbola, so that total expenditure, \(P\times Q\), remains constant at every point on the curve.
(iii) Fairly elastic demand: A small percentage change in price causes a more than proportionate percentage change in quantity demanded. Thus, \(E_d>1\). The demand curve is relatively flat.
(iv) Perfectly elastic demand: At a given price, consumers will buy any quantity, but a slight increase in price reduces quantity demanded to zero. Thus, \(E_d=\infty\), and the demand curve is horizontal.
Vraag 57 Verslag
Write notes on each of the following:
(a) Savings account
(b) Current account
(c) Fixed deposit account.
(a) Savings account. This is a deposit account operated mainly by small savers with a commercial bank or savings bank. It earns interest, encourages the saving habit, and usually requires the presentation of a passbook (or card) for withdrawals. Withdrawals may be limited in number or amount, and cheques are not normally issued on it. It is suited to people who wish to keep money safe while earning modest interest.
(b) Current account. This is a demand-deposit account used mainly by businesses and traders for frequent transactions. The customer is issued a cheque book and can withdraw or pay by cheque at any time. It earns little or no interest, and the bank usually charges commission on turnover (bank charges). It also allows overdraft facilities to approved customers, making it convenient for business payments.
(c) Fixed deposit account. This is an account in which a sum of money is deposited with the bank for a fixed period of time (for example three months, six months or a year) and cannot be withdrawn before the agreed date without notice or loss of interest. It earns a higher rate of interest than a savings account because the bank can lend the money over that period. It suits customers who have surplus funds they do not need immediately.
Antwoorddetails
(a) Savings account. This is a deposit account operated mainly by small savers with a commercial bank or savings bank. It earns interest, encourages the saving habit, and usually requires the presentation of a passbook (or card) for withdrawals. Withdrawals may be limited in number or amount, and cheques are not normally issued on it. It is suited to people who wish to keep money safe while earning modest interest.
(b) Current account. This is a demand-deposit account used mainly by businesses and traders for frequent transactions. The customer is issued a cheque book and can withdraw or pay by cheque at any time. It earns little or no interest, and the bank usually charges commission on turnover (bank charges). It also allows overdraft facilities to approved customers, making it convenient for business payments.
(c) Fixed deposit account. This is an account in which a sum of money is deposited with the bank for a fixed period of time (for example three months, six months or a year) and cannot be withdrawn before the agreed date without notice or loss of interest. It earns a higher rate of interest than a savings account because the bank can lend the money over that period. It suits customers who have surplus funds they do not need immediately.
Vraag 58 Verslag
(a) Define the term unemployment.
(b) Highlight the effects of unemployment on an economy.
(a) Unemployment is a situation in which people who are able and willing to work, and are actively seeking work at the prevailing wage rate, are unable to find jobs. It refers to the idleness of labour that is available for and seeking employment; it excludes those unwilling or unable to work.
(b) Effects of unemployment on an economy:
- Fall in national output (GDP): idle labour is wasted, so the economy produces less than it could, and income per head falls.
- Lower standard of living: the unemployed and their dependants have little or no income, increasing poverty.
- Loss of government revenue: fewer people earn taxable incomes, while government spends more on relief, so budgets suffer.
- Increase in crime and social vices: idleness and lack of income encourage armed robbery, fraud and restiveness, threatening security.
- Rural-urban migration and drift: people move about in search of work, straining urban facilities.
- Waste of investment in education and training: skills acquired go unused, and workers' skills deteriorate over time.
- Political and social unrest: widespread unemployment breeds discontent and can cause instability.
- Emigration (brain drain): skilled people leave for jobs abroad, depriving the country of manpower.
Antwoorddetails
(a) Unemployment is a situation in which people who are able and willing to work, and are actively seeking work at the prevailing wage rate, are unable to find jobs. It refers to the idleness of labour that is available for and seeking employment; it excludes those unwilling or unable to work.
(b) Effects of unemployment on an economy:
- Fall in national output (GDP): idle labour is wasted, so the economy produces less than it could, and income per head falls.
- Lower standard of living: the unemployed and their dependants have little or no income, increasing poverty.
- Loss of government revenue: fewer people earn taxable incomes, while government spends more on relief, so budgets suffer.
- Increase in crime and social vices: idleness and lack of income encourage armed robbery, fraud and restiveness, threatening security.
- Rural-urban migration and drift: people move about in search of work, straining urban facilities.
- Waste of investment in education and training: skills acquired go unused, and workers' skills deteriorate over time.
- Political and social unrest: widespread unemployment breeds discontent and can cause instability.
- Emigration (brain drain): skilled people leave for jobs abroad, depriving the country of manpower.
Vraag 59 Verslag
Study the following extract on country Y's population data and answer the questions that follow.
The population of country Y in 1970 was 60 million. From 1971 to 1975 the total number of births was 25 million and deaths stood at 3 million. 8 million immigrants and 4 million emigrants were recorded in the reporting period.
(a) Present the above data in a table.
(b) (i) Determine the net migration within the period.
(ii) Calculate the population of the country in 1975.
(c) What is the percentage increase in the population of the country from 1970 to 1975?
(a) Population data for Country Y
| Item | 1970 | 1971 to 1975 |
|---|---|---|
| Number of births (million) | - | 25 |
| Number of deaths (million) | - | 3 |
| Number of immigrants (million) | - | 8 |
| Number of emigrants (million) | - | 4 |
| Total population (million) | 60 | 86 |
(b)(i) Net migration
\[\text{Net migration}=\text{Immigrants}-\text{Emigrants}=8-4=4\text{ million}\]
Therefore, net migration was 4 million persons.
(b)(ii) Population in 1975
\[\begin{aligned}\text{Population in 1975} &= \text{Population in 1970}+(\text{Births}-\text{Deaths})+\text{Net migration}\\&=60+(25-3)+4\\&=60+22+4\\&=86\text{ million}\end{aligned}\]
Therefore, the population of Country Y in 1975 was 86 million.
(c) Percentage increase in population
\[\begin{aligned}\text{Percentage increase} &= \frac{\text{Population in 1975}-\text{Population in 1970}}{\text{Population in 1970}}\times100\\&=\frac{86-60}{60}\times100\\&=\frac{26}{60}\times100\\&=43.33\%\end{aligned}\]
Therefore, the percentage increase in population from 1970 to 1975 was 43.33%.
Antwoorddetails
(a) Population data for Country Y
| Item | 1970 | 1971 to 1975 |
|---|---|---|
| Number of births (million) | - | 25 |
| Number of deaths (million) | - | 3 |
| Number of immigrants (million) | - | 8 |
| Number of emigrants (million) | - | 4 |
| Total population (million) | 60 | 86 |
(b)(i) Net migration
\[\text{Net migration}=\text{Immigrants}-\text{Emigrants}=8-4=4\text{ million}\]
Therefore, net migration was 4 million persons.
(b)(ii) Population in 1975
\[\begin{aligned}\text{Population in 1975} &= \text{Population in 1970}+(\text{Births}-\text{Deaths})+\text{Net migration}\\&=60+(25-3)+4\\&=60+22+4\\&=86\text{ million}\end{aligned}\]
Therefore, the population of Country Y in 1975 was 86 million.
(c) Percentage increase in population
\[\begin{aligned}\text{Percentage increase} &= \frac{\text{Population in 1975}-\text{Population in 1970}}{\text{Population in 1970}}\times100\\&=\frac{86-60}{60}\times100\\&=\frac{26}{60}\times100\\&=43.33\%\end{aligned}\]
Therefore, the percentage increase in population from 1970 to 1975 was 43.33%.
Vraag 60 Verslag
(a) What is economic planning?
(b) Outline the problems associated with economic planning in West Africa.
(a) Economic planning is the deliberate and conscious effort by the government to direct and control the economic activities and resources of a country towards achieving stated economic objectives (such as growth, full employment and development) over a specified period of time. It involves setting targets and allocating resources through a coordinated plan.
(b) Problems of economic planning in West Africa:
- Inadequate and unreliable data (statistics): lack of accurate figures on population, resources and income makes it hard to set realistic targets.
- Shortage of capital/finance: insufficient funds to execute planned projects, forcing reliance on foreign loans and aid.
- Shortage of skilled manpower: few trained planners, administrators and technicians to prepare and implement the plans effectively.
- Political instability: frequent changes of government interrupt or abandon plans midway.
- Corruption and mismanagement: diversion of funds and inefficiency reduce the resources actually reaching projects.
- Over-dependence on external factors: reliance on imported inputs, foreign experts and volatile export earnings makes plans vulnerable to outside shocks.
- Natural disasters and unforeseen events: drought, flood and disease can upset planned targets.
- Poor implementation and lack of continuity: weak machinery for execution and monitoring means plans are often not carried out as designed.
Antwoorddetails
(a) Economic planning is the deliberate and conscious effort by the government to direct and control the economic activities and resources of a country towards achieving stated economic objectives (such as growth, full employment and development) over a specified period of time. It involves setting targets and allocating resources through a coordinated plan.
(b) Problems of economic planning in West Africa:
- Inadequate and unreliable data (statistics): lack of accurate figures on population, resources and income makes it hard to set realistic targets.
- Shortage of capital/finance: insufficient funds to execute planned projects, forcing reliance on foreign loans and aid.
- Shortage of skilled manpower: few trained planners, administrators and technicians to prepare and implement the plans effectively.
- Political instability: frequent changes of government interrupt or abandon plans midway.
- Corruption and mismanagement: diversion of funds and inefficiency reduce the resources actually reaching projects.
- Over-dependence on external factors: reliance on imported inputs, foreign experts and volatile export earnings makes plans vulnerable to outside shocks.
- Natural disasters and unforeseen events: drought, flood and disease can upset planned targets.
- Poor implementation and lack of continuity: weak machinery for execution and monitoring means plans are often not carried out as designed.
