WAEC SSCE - Commerce - 2012

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An activity involving buying, selling, distribution of goods and services is known as commerce. Commerce is a broad term that encompasses all the activities involved in the exchange of goods and services. It involves the production, buying, selling, and distribution of goods and services from the place of production to the final consumer. Commerce is the backbone of any economy, and it helps in creating wealth, generating employment opportunities, and improving the standard of living of the people. The term commerce is often used interchangeably with trade, exchange, and marketing mix, but it is a more comprehensive term that includes all these activities.

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Department stores are an example of large-scale retailing. These stores are typically very large and offer a wide range of products, including clothing, home goods, electronics, and more. They are often organized into different departments, with each department focused on a specific category of products. Department stores also typically have a large number of employees and may offer additional services, such as personal shopping or in-store events. This is in contrast to other types of retailing, such as hawking, mobile shops, and kiosks, which are generally smaller in scale and offer a more limited selection of products. Overall, department stores are a key player in the retail industry and are an example of how retailing can be done on a large scale.

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The document issued by the registrar of companies to permit a public limited company to commence business is called the Certificate of Incorporation. The Certificate of Incorporation is a legal document that confirms the registration of a company with the Companies House, which is the official registrar of companies in the UK. It is issued once the company formation process is complete, and it confirms that the company has been incorporated and is legally recognized as a separate entity from its owners. The Certificate of Incorporation contains important information such as the company name, registration number, date of incorporation, and the company's registered office address. It is a crucial document that allows the company to conduct business legally and access various business services, such as opening a bank account or obtaining credit.

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The exclusive right of an author over his book is called copyright. Copyright is a legal concept that gives the creator of an original work, such as a book, the exclusive right to use, distribute, and profit from their work. This means that the author has the sole right to make copies of the book, distribute it, and create adaptations or derivative works. Copyright protection is automatic and does not require registration, although it is recommended to register with a national copyright office to have proof of ownership in case of any legal disputes. The purpose of copyright is to protect the intellectual property rights of authors and encourage creativity and innovation.

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The entitlement of a debenture holder from a company's income is known as interest. Debentures are long-term debt instruments issued by companies to raise funds from the public. When an investor buys a debenture, they become a creditor to the company and are entitled to receive a fixed rate of interest on their investment. The interest paid to debenture holders is a percentage of the face value of the debenture and is usually paid at regular intervals, such as annually or semi-annually. The company's obligation to pay interest to debenture holders is a legal liability, and failure to pay interest can lead to legal action against the company. Unlike dividends, which are a share in the company's profits, interest is a fixed payment that is not linked to the company's performance. Therefore, the entitlement of a debenture holder from a company's income is known as interest.

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A voluntary body formed by people in the same line of business for the purpose of protecting their interest is known as a "trade association". It is usually formed by businesses or individuals who have a common interest or purpose in a particular industry or trade. The trade association acts as a representative body for its members and provides support and services to help them operate more effectively. These may include lobbying for favorable legislation, providing industry-specific training and resources, and promoting the interests of the industry to the public.

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The Central Bank's monetary policy instrument by which it buys and sells treasury bills is known as Open Market Operations. Open Market Operations (OMO) is a monetary policy tool used by the central bank to manage the money supply in the economy. It involves the buying and selling of government securities, such as treasury bills and bonds, in the open market. When the central bank buys these securities, it injects money into the economy, which can stimulate economic growth. Conversely, when it sells these securities, it withdraws money from the economy, which can slow down inflation. OMO is a flexible tool that can be used to implement various monetary policy objectives, such as controlling inflation, stabilizing interest rates, and promoting economic growth. It is a key mechanism through which the central bank can influence the supply of money in the economy and maintain stability in the financial system.

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The bank on which a cheque is drawn is known as the drawee bank. When a person writes a cheque, they are instructing their bank, which is the drawer, to pay a specific amount of money to the person or organization named on the cheque, who is the payee. The drawer's bank then verifies that there are sufficient funds in the drawer's account to cover the cheque and sends it to the drawee bank, which is the bank on which the cheque is drawn. The drawee bank is responsible for processing the cheque and debiting the drawer's account for the amount of the cheque. The cashier is the person who handles cash transactions at a bank, such as depositing or withdrawing money. The drawer is the person who writes the cheque and signs it, while the payee is the person or organization who is supposed to receive the funds. In summary, the bank on which a cheque is drawn is known as the drawee bank, which is responsible for processing the cheque and debiting the drawer's account for the amount of the cheque.

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An auctioneer is a licensed person who is authorized to sell goods or property to the highest bidder. They are responsible for managing and conducting auctions, which involve bringing buyers and sellers together in a competitive bidding process. The auctioneer's role is to facilitate the bidding process and ensure that the highest bidder wins the item being sold. They must be knowledgeable about the goods or property being sold and be able to set a fair starting price and bid increments. Overall, the auctioneer plays a critical role in ensuring that the auction process is fair, efficient, and transparent.

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A written instruction by a current account holder to his bank to debit his account at regular intervals with a specified amount for a given period is known as a "standing order". This is a type of automated payment arrangement that the account holder sets up with the bank to make recurring payments, such as rent, mortgage, or utility bills, without having to initiate each payment separately. The standing order is initiated by the account holder, and the bank automatically debits the specified amount from the account and transfers it to the designated payee at the scheduled intervals.

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The function of collecting tariffs on imported goods is the responsibility of the Customs and Excise Authority. They are responsible for enforcing the laws and regulations governing the import and export of goods. The Customs and Excise Authority is responsible for assessing and collecting taxes on goods that are imported into a country. They also ensure that the goods being imported comply with the rules and regulations of the country.

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The satisfaction of customers in all business activities is emphasized by the marketing concept. The marketing concept is a business philosophy that prioritizes meeting the needs and wants of customers by providing high-quality products and services that meet their needs. It involves understanding customer needs and wants through market research, developing products and services that meet those needs, and using the right marketing mix to communicate the benefits of the products or services to the target audience. By emphasizing the satisfaction of customers in all business activities, the marketing concept recognizes that customers are the backbone of any business, and their satisfaction is crucial to the success of the business. Therefore, businesses that adopt the marketing concept focus on creating a customer-centric culture, where every employee is trained to understand and prioritize the needs of customers in all their activities, from product development to customer service. This approach helps businesses to build a loyal customer base, increase customer retention, and boost profitability.

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The buyer in a hire purchase contract becomes the legal owner of the goods by paying the last installment. Hire purchase is a type of agreement where a buyer agrees to pay for goods in installments over a period of time. The buyer takes possession of the goods at the beginning of the agreement but does not become the legal owner until the final installment is paid. Once the buyer makes the final payment, they take full ownership of the goods. Until then, the seller retains legal ownership and has the right to repossess the goods if the buyer fails to make the payments. The last installment is usually the largest and represents the final payment required to complete the purchase. Once this payment is made, the buyer obtains full ownership rights and can use or dispose of the goods as they see fit.

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Current account holders can withdraw money from their account by using different methods, such as a credit card, a draft, a withdrawal form, or a cheque. A credit card is a plastic card that allows you to borrow money from your bank or credit card company up to a certain limit. You can use it to make purchases or withdraw cash from an ATM, and the amount you spend or withdraw is added to your outstanding balance, which you'll need to repay with interest. A draft is a type of payment that is similar to a cheque. It is issued by the bank and allows you to withdraw money from your current account. You can use a draft to pay bills, make purchases, or transfer money to someone else. A withdrawal form is a document that you fill out to request a withdrawal of money from your current account. You can typically get a withdrawal form from your bank or download it online. You'll need to provide information such as your account number, the amount you want to withdraw, and your signature. A cheque is a written order that you give to your bank to withdraw money from your current account and pay it to someone else. You'll need to fill out the cheque with the name of the person or company you're paying, the amount, and your signature. The recipient can then deposit the cheque into their own bank account to receive the money.

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Throwing cargo overboard in order to save a ship from sinking is called jettison. When a ship is in danger of sinking, the captain may decide to throw some of the cargo overboard in order to lighten the load and make the ship more buoyant. This is a difficult decision to make, as it involves sacrificing valuable cargo in order to save the lives of the crew and the ship itself. Jettison is often used as a last resort in emergency situations at sea, and is an important aspect of maritime law.

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The correct sequence of documents as used in the retail trade is as follows: 1. Enquiry: The first step in the retail trade is an enquiry from the customer about the product or service they are interested in purchasing. The enquiry may include questions about the price, availability, and other relevant details. 2. Quotation: Based on the enquiry, the seller will provide a quotation which includes the details of the product or service, the price, and any other terms and conditions. The quotation serves as an offer from the seller to the customer. 3. Order: If the customer is satisfied with the quotation, they will place an order for the product or service. The order is a confirmation from the customer that they agree to the terms and conditions mentioned in the quotation. 4. Invoice: After the product or service has been delivered, the seller will issue an invoice to the customer. The invoice includes the details of the product or service, the price, and any applicable taxes. The invoice serves as a request for payment from the customer. Therefore, the correct sequence of documents as used in the retail trade is "Enquiry, Quotation, Order, Invoice".

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A feature of mail order business is that it practices self-service. Mail order business involves customers ordering products through mail or online, without visiting a physical store. As a result, there are no shop assistants available to provide assistance or customer service. Instead, customers browse catalogs or websites and place orders themselves, usually by filling out an order form or adding items to an online shopping cart. This is known as self-service. Mail order businesses typically have a large inventory of products and rely on the self-service model to keep costs low and prices competitive. Overall, self-service is a key feature of mail order businesses and is what sets them apart from traditional brick-and-mortar stores.

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A cheque drawn by a bank on itself is known as a bank draft. It is a type of cheque where the bank itself is both the drawer and the drawee. The bank draft is usually issued for large amounts of money and is considered to be a secure method of payment because the funds are guaranteed by the bank. When a bank draft is presented for payment, the bank is obligated to honor it, as it is effectively paying itself. This is in contrast to a regular cheque, which may bounce if the drawer's account does not have sufficient funds. Overall, a bank draft is a reliable way to transfer money, particularly for high-value transactions.

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Industrial occupation involves the use of technology and machinery to transform raw materials into finished goods. It includes activities such as manufacturing, construction, and processing of raw materials. Therefore, the statement that "Industrial occupation does not involve the movement of people and goods" is incorrect. Movement of people and goods is an important part of industrial occupation as it involves transporting raw materials, finished goods, and other resources to and from the manufacturing site. Transportation plays a vital role in industrial activities as it ensures the smooth and efficient movement of people and goods, which is crucial for the success of any industrial operation.

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Those who are engaged in the distribution of goods belong to the commercial occupation. Commercial occupation involves activities that are concerned with buying, selling or exchanging goods and services for profit. Distribution of goods involves the movement of goods from the manufacturer or producer to the end consumer or user through a chain of intermediaries, such as wholesalers, retailers, and distributors. These intermediaries play a crucial role in the distribution process by facilitating the movement of goods and ensuring that they reach the end consumer efficiently and effectively. The commercial occupation includes a range of activities such as buying and selling goods, warehousing, transportation, and logistics, among others.

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Public relations is concerned with promoting a favorable image of an organization. Public relations involves managing communication between an organization and its stakeholders, including customers, investors, and the public. The goal of public relations is to create and maintain a positive image of the organization in the eyes of its stakeholders, through various forms of communication such as press releases, events, and social media. Public relations can also involve managing crises and handling negative publicity.

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The principle involved when an insurance policy is declared void because of a false declaration is "utmost good faith". Utmost good faith is a principle that applies to insurance contracts, and it requires both parties (the insurer and the insured) to provide each other with complete and accurate information about the subject matter of the insurance contract. If the insured fails to provide accurate information or makes a false declaration, this can be considered a breach of utmost good faith, which can lead to the insurance policy being declared void or canceled. This means that the insurer is not obligated to pay any claims under the policy, and the insured may lose their premiums or any other payments made under the policy. Utmost good faith is an important principle that helps ensure that insurance contracts are based on accurate and complete information, and that both parties are aware of the risks involved in the insurance transaction.

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The assets of a business that are available for cash or near cash are called liquid capital. Liquid capital refers to those assets of a business that can be quickly and easily converted into cash or cash equivalents without significant loss in value. These assets include cash in hand, cash at bank, short-term investments, accounts receivables, and inventory that can be sold quickly. Having sufficient liquid capital is important for a business as it ensures that the business can meet its short-term obligations, such as paying bills, salaries, and other expenses. It also provides a cushion for unexpected expenses or emergencies. Therefore, businesses monitor their liquid capital carefully to ensure that they have sufficient funds available to meet their short-term needs.

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A ceiling on the quantity of a commodity to be imported into the country is called a quota. It is a trade restriction that limits the quantity of a particular good that can be imported into a country over a set period. This is usually done to protect domestic industries from foreign competition, to reduce the trade deficit or to promote self-sufficiency. A quota can be imposed on a specific commodity or country, and it can be either a voluntary or mandatory restriction.

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One of the principles of insurance is proximate cause. This principle states that an insurance company will only pay a claim if the loss or damage was caused by an insured peril, and not by any other unrelated cause. In other words, the proximate cause of the loss must be an insured event. For example, if a car is insured against theft, the insurance company will only pay the claim if the theft was the proximate cause of the loss of the car. If the car was damaged in a fire, the insurance company would not be liable to pay the claim, since the proximate cause of the loss was not theft. The principle of proximate cause is important in determining whether or not an insurance policy covers a particular loss, and helps to ensure that insurance companies only pay claims for losses that are covered by the policy.

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Life insurance is not an insurance of indemnity. Indemnity insurance is a type of insurance where the policyholder is compensated for the actual amount of loss or damage they have incurred. In other words, the policyholder is only reimbursed for the amount they have lost, and not for any amount over that. Life insurance, on the other hand, is not an insurance of indemnity because it pays out a fixed sum of money upon the death of the insured, regardless of the actual loss suffered by the policyholder. So, if the insured dies, the beneficiaries receive a predetermined amount of money, rather than the actual amount of loss or expenses incurred. In summary, indemnity insurance covers the actual loss suffered by the policyholder, while life insurance pays out a fixed sum of money in the event of the insured's death.

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Salaries of expatriates are classified as an invisible item in balance of payment. Invisible items are transactions that do not involve physical movement of goods or money across borders, and thus do not have a direct impact on a country's foreign exchange reserves. Salaries of expatriates refer to payments made by a company in one country to employees who are citizens of another country and are working in a foreign country. This type of transaction is not recorded as an export or import, but rather as an outflow or inflow of money in the country's balance of payment accounts, which is a record of all international transactions between a country's residents and the rest of the world over a specified period of time.

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A bonded warehouse is a place where dutiable goods are kept. It is a facility authorized by the government to store imported goods until the necessary customs duties are paid or until the goods are cleared for export. This means that the goods can be stored in the bonded warehouse without payment of the customs duty until they are taken out for use or for sale. Bonded warehouses are particularly useful for importers who want to defer payment of customs duty until the goods are sold or used, which can help to improve cash flow.

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Buildings and machinery used in the running of a business are examples of fixed assets. Fixed assets are long-term tangible assets that are not expected to be converted to cash within a year or one business cycle. They are typically used to generate income and provide ongoing benefits to the business. Fixed assets can include buildings, land, machinery, equipment, vehicles, and furniture. These assets are usually recorded on a company's balance sheet at their original cost, and then depreciated over their useful life to reflect their diminishing value over time. Fixed assets are an important component of a company's financial health and can be used to secure loans or other forms of financing.

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The abbreviation E & O.E. on an invoice stands for "Errors and Omissions Excepted". It indicates that the seller is not liable for any errors or omissions on the invoice and that the document is not intended to be a legally binding contract. It is a way for the seller to protect themselves against any inadvertent mistakes or oversights that may occur during the preparation of the invoice. Therefore, the correct answer is that E & O.E. seeks to protect the seller against any error on the document.

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The West African Currency Board acted as the central bank for West African countries before their independence. The West African Currency Board was established in 1912 to oversee the currency and monetary policy of British West Africa, which included Nigeria, Ghana, Sierra Leone, and Gambia. It issued and regulated the circulation of the West African pound, which was used as the official currency in these countries. The West African Currency Board was responsible for maintaining the value of the West African pound, ensuring its convertibility to other currencies, and managing the foreign exchange reserves of the region. It also acted as a lender of last resort to commercial banks and provided banking services to the colonial government. After the independence of these countries in the 1960s, the West African Currency Board was replaced by individual central banks for each country. However, some of these central banks continued to use the West African pound as their currency for a period of time before transitioning to their own national currencies. In summary, the West African Currency Board served as the central bank for British West Africa before the region's independence, regulating the currency and monetary policy and managing foreign exchange reserves.

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The development of trade in West Africa was aided by the arrival of the Portuguese. In the 15th century, the Portuguese arrived in West Africa and established trade relationships with the people living along the coast. The Portuguese were interested in trading for gold, ivory, and slaves, and they established ports and trading posts along the coast to facilitate these transactions. The arrival of the Portuguese was a turning point in the history of West Africa, as it opened up new trade opportunities and expanded existing trade routes. The Portuguese brought new goods to the region, such as firearms and textiles, and introduced new technologies, such as the compass and the astrolabe, which made long-distance travel and navigation easier. As a result of these developments, West Africa became an important center of international trade, and its cities and ports grew and prospered. The wealth generated by trade also led to the emergence of powerful states and the development of new political and social systems. Therefore, the arrival of the Portuguese was a significant factor in the development of trade in West Africa.

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The combination of product, price, promotion, and distribution decisions employed by a company is referred to as the marketing mix. Marketing mix is a term used to describe the combination of factors that a company can control in order to influence customers to purchase its products or services. The four elements of the marketing mix are product, price, promotion, and place (distribution). Product refers to the design, features, and packaging of a company's offering. Price refers to the amount charged for the product or service, taking into account the cost of production, competition, and other factors. Promotion refers to the communication strategies used to reach customers, such as advertising, sales promotions, public relations, and personal selling. Place (distribution) refers to the channels used to make the product or service available to customers, such as retail stores, online sales, or direct marketing. By combining these four elements, a company can create a marketing mix that effectively meets the needs and wants of its target customers. A well-designed marketing mix can help a company to stand out from competitors and generate sales and profits. Therefore, the combination of product, price, promotion, and distribution decisions employed by a company is referred to as the marketing mix.

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The relationship between all imports and exports of a country is known as balance of trade. It is the difference between the total value of a country's imports and exports over a certain period of time. If the value of exports exceeds imports, it is called a trade surplus, while if the value of imports exceeds exports, it is called a trade deficit. The balance of trade is an important indicator of a country's economic health and its ability to compete in international markets.

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Infants generally have no capacity to enter into a valid contract. An infant is a legal term used to refer to a person who is under the age of majority, which is usually 18 years old. Infants are generally considered to lack the legal capacity to enter into a contract because they may not fully understand the nature and consequences of the agreement they are entering into. The law recognizes that infants are not mature enough to make binding legal commitments and therefore provides protection for them. This protection is based on the assumption that infants may be taken advantage of by others who may have more experience or knowledge in certain matters. As a result, contracts entered into by infants are usually considered voidable, meaning that the infant has the option to either enforce or disaffirm the contract upon reaching the age of majority. This means that the infant can either choose to uphold the contract and be bound by its terms, or repudiate the contract and be released from any obligations under it. In summary, infants generally lack the capacity to enter into a valid contract due to their immaturity and the potential for exploitation by others. Any contracts entered into by infants are usually considered voidable, giving the infant the option to enforce or disaffirm the contract upon reaching the age of majority.

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Collecting information on the taste of consumers and the extent of demand for a product is known as market research. Market research is the process of gathering and analyzing information about customers, competitors, and market trends. It helps companies to understand the needs and preferences of their customers and to develop products and services that meet those needs. The information gathered through market research includes data on customer behavior, attitudes, opinions, and preferences, as well as information on market size, competition, and trends. This information is used to make informed decisions about product development, pricing, promotion, and distribution, which are key components of the marketing mix. The marketing concept is a broader philosophy that focuses on putting the customer at the center of all business decisions, with the aim of creating long-term customer satisfaction and loyalty. Market segmentation is the process of dividing a market into smaller groups of consumers with similar needs and characteristics, in order to tailor marketing efforts to their specific needs.

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The document which specifies the manufacturer from whom goods are to be imported is a closed indent. A closed indent is a document used in international trade that specifies the details of an order for imported goods, including the type and quantity of goods, the price, delivery terms, and the name and address of the manufacturer from whom the goods are to be imported. It is called a "closed" indent because the order is placed with a specific manufacturer, and there is no provision for the order to be transferred to another manufacturer. A closed indent is different from an open indent, which does not specify a particular manufacturer and allows the importer to choose from a range of suppliers. An export invoice is a document issued by the exporter to the importer, which provides details of the goods shipped, the price, and payment terms. A consignment note is a document used to accompany a shipment of goods, which provides details of the contents of the shipment and the parties involved in the transaction. Therefore, the document which specifies the manufacturer from whom goods are to be imported is a closed indent.

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The functions of credit and thrift society do not include providing security for member's property. Credit and thrift societies are organizations formed to encourage savings and provide affordable credit facilities to their members. These societies exist to promote mutual co-operation among their members, provide savings facilities, and charge low-interest rates on loans. However, they do not typically offer security for their members' property. Instead, they focus on financial services that can help members improve their financial well-being.

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A collective bundle of shares is called "stock". When a company wants to raise money, it can issue stocks to investors. A stock represents a small piece of ownership in the company, and each stockholder is entitled to a share of the company's profits and assets. Stocks can be bought and sold on a stock exchange, and the value of a stock can rise or fall depending on factors such as the company's performance, market conditions, and investor sentiment. The term "stock" can also be used to refer to the total number of shares that a company has issued.

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The money paid to Mr. Lou by XYZ Assurance Company for his broken leg is known as indemnity. Indemnity is a payment made by an insurance company to compensate a policyholder for losses suffered as a result of an insured event. In this case, Mr. Lou suffered a broken leg due to an accident, which was covered under his life insurance policy with XYZ Assurance Company. The company paid him the sum of #80,000 as indemnity for the medical expenses and other financial losses incurred as a result of the injury. Therefore, the money received by Mr. Lou is called indemnity.

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An efficient transport system enables a trader to widen the market for his products. This is because an efficient transport system allows goods to be transported quickly and safely to various locations, including remote areas, where they can be sold to a larger number of potential customers. Additionally, an efficient transport system can help the trader to respond quickly to changes in demand and supply, and adjust their price policy accordingly. A reduction in transportation costs can also lead to a reduction in the overall cost of production, making the trader more competitive in the market. Therefore, an efficient transport system can have a positive impact on a trader's profitability and success.

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(a) Difference between nationalization and indigenization

Nationalization is the taking over of the ownership and control of privately owned businesses (often foreign or local) by the government, so that such enterprises become owned and run by the state. Indigenization, on the other hand, is the transfer of the ownership and control of businesses from foreigners to the citizens (indigenes) of a country, so that nationals own all or a substantial part of the shares and management of those businesses.

In short, nationalization moves ownership from private hands to the government, while indigenization moves ownership from foreigners to the citizens of the country.

(b) Reasons a country would indigenize some industries

• To place the ownership and control of key businesses in the hands of the citizens of the country.
• To reduce the excessive dominance and control of the economy by foreigners.
• To retain profits within the country and check the repatriation of earnings by foreigners.
• To create more opportunities for citizens to participate in business and gain managerial and technical experience.
• To ensure that the wealth and natural resources of the country benefit the indigenes.
• To promote rapid economic growth and self-reliance by developing indigenous entrepreneurs.

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Documents used in international trade

• (a) Indent: This is an order for goods sent by an importer to an agent or exporter abroad, giving details of the goods required. An open indent leaves the agent free to buy from any supplier, while a closed indent names the particular supplier from whom the goods must be bought.
• (b) Bill of lading: This is a document issued by a shipping company acknowledging that the goods have been received on board for shipment. It serves as a receipt for the goods, evidence of the contract of carriage, and a document of title which the holder can use to claim the goods at the port of destination.
• (c) Consular invoice: This is an invoice certified and stamped by the consul of the importing country stationed in the exporting country. It confirms the value, quantity and origin of the goods and helps the importing country to assess the correct import duty and prevent dumping.
• (d) Certificate of origin: This is a document stating the country in which the goods were produced or manufactured. It is used by the importing country to determine the rate of duty to charge and to enforce trade agreements or restrictions on goods from particular countries.
• (e) Bill of exchange: This is an unconditional order in writing, drawn by the exporter (drawer) on the importer (drawee), requiring the importer to pay a certain sum of money on demand or at a fixed future date to the drawer or a named person. It is a means of demanding and obtaining payment in international trade.

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(a) Explanation of terms

• (i) Limited liability: This means the liability of a shareholder for the debts of the company is limited to the amount unpaid on the shares he holds. His personal property cannot be taken to settle the company's debts.
• (ii) Separate legal entity: This means a company is regarded in law as a person distinct from its owners. It can own property, enter into contracts, sue and be sued in its own name.
• (iii) Certificate of incorporation: This is the legal document issued by the Registrar of Companies which brings a company into existence and gives it the right to begin operating as a body corporate.
• (iv) Participating preference shares: These are preference shares whose holders, after receiving their fixed dividend, also share in the surplus profit along with ordinary shareholders, earning an additional dividend.
• (v) Ordinary shares: These are the equity or risk-bearing shares of a company whose holders receive a variable dividend paid only after preference shareholders, and who carry voting rights and control the company.

(b) Advantages of a public corporation

• It is financed by government, so large capital is available for big projects that private firms cannot easily undertake.
• It provides essential services to the public at affordable prices without aiming solely at profit.
• It enjoys monopoly in providing certain services, which avoids wasteful competition and duplication.
• It can be used by government to control key sectors of the economy and prevent exploitation of the public.
• It provides employment and can bear losses in the short run because it is backed by government funds.

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(a) Factors affecting the choice of transport for frozen products

• Perishability of the goods: Frozen products spoil quickly, so a fast means of transport that gets them to the market in good time is essential.
• Availability of refrigeration: The transport chosen must be fitted with cold-storage or refrigerated facilities to keep the products frozen throughout the journey.
• Distance to be covered: For long distances, faster transport such as air or refrigerated vehicles is needed to avoid deterioration, while short distances allow cheaper means.
• Cost of transport: The trader must weigh the transport cost against the value of the goods, choosing a means that is affordable yet preserves the products.
• Nature of the route and infrastructure: Good roads, ports or airports and the condition of the terrain determine which means of transport can reliably reach the destination.

(b) Disadvantages of air transport

• It is the most expensive means of transport, with high fares and freight charges.
• It cannot carry very heavy and bulky goods such as machinery and building materials.
• It is greatly affected by bad weather, which can cause delays or cancellation of flights.
• It requires expensive airports and terminals, so it cannot deliver goods directly to the customer's door.
• Accidents in air transport are usually very serious, often resulting in total loss of lives and goods.

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(a) Market segmentation

Market segmentation is the process of dividing a large, varied market into smaller distinct groups of buyers who share similar needs, characteristics or buying behaviour, so that each group can be served with a suitable marketing approach.

(b) Factors that influence market segmentation

1. Age of consumers
2. Income or purchasing power
3. Sex or gender
4. Geographical location
5. Occupation or social class
6. Taste, preference and lifestyle

(c) Advantages of advertising

• It informs customers: Advertising makes consumers aware of the existence, features and prices of goods and services.
• It increases sales: By creating and stimulating demand, advertising helps the producer to sell more goods and earn higher profit.
• It creates and sustains goodwill: Regular advertising builds a favourable image and brand loyalty for the firm and its products.
• It supports mass production: The wide demand created by advertising enables firms to produce on a large scale and enjoy lower unit costs.
• It provides employment: Advertising creates jobs for artists, marketers, media houses and others engaged in the advertising industry.

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Ade Company Limited: capital and asset calculations

(a) Issued capital

Issued capital is the value of the shares that have been offered to and taken up by the public. Only 30,000 of the shares have been subscribed and allotted, each of nominal value N20.

Issued capital = \(30{,}000 \times N20 = N600{,}000\)

(b) Unissued capital

Unissued capital is the part of the authorised capital that has not yet been offered to the public. Authorised capital is 80,000 shares; 30,000 have been issued, leaving 50,000 shares.

Unissued capital = \((80{,}000 - 30{,}000) \times N20 = 50{,}000 \times N20 = N1{,}000{,}000\)

(c) Total assets

Total assets are the sum of all the fixed and current assets of the company.

Total assets = \(N235{,}000\)

(d) Working capital

Working capital = Current assets - Current liabilities. The current assets are stock, debtors and cash; the current liability is creditors.

Current assets = \(60{,}000 + 15{,}000 + 5{,}000 = N80{,}000\)

Current liabilities (creditors) = \(N35{,}000\)

Working capital = \(N80{,}000 - N35{,}000 = N45{,}000\)

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(a) Credit

Credit is an arrangement whereby goods, services or money are supplied to a person on trust, allowing him to pay for them at a later agreed date rather than immediately. It is a means of buying now and paying later.

(b) Principles of insurance

1. Utmost good faith (uberrimae fidei): Both parties, especially the insured, must disclose all material facts about the risk honestly and completely; concealment of a material fact makes the contract void.
2. Insurable interest: The insured must have a lawful financial interest in the subject matter, such that he would suffer a loss if it were damaged or destroyed.
3. Indemnity: The insured is placed back in the same financial position he was in before the loss, no more and no less, so that he does not profit from the loss. (This does not apply to life assurance.)
4. Subrogation: After the insured has been fully compensated, the insurer takes over any rights or remains of the damaged property so that the insured does not gain twice for the same loss.
5. Contribution: Where the same risk is insured with more than one insurer, each insurer contributes proportionately to the loss so that the insured recovers only the actual amount of the loss once.
6. Proximate cause: The insurer is liable only for a loss caused directly by the risk insured against, and not by a remote or excluded cause.

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(a) Contract

A contract is a legally binding agreement between two or more persons which the law will enforce. It is an agreement that creates rights and obligations that the parties are bound to observe.

(b) Elements of a valid contract

1. Offer and acceptance
2. Consideration
3. Intention to create legal relations
4. Capacity of the parties to contract
5. Genuine consent (free consent) and legality of the object

(c) Ways a contract may be discharged

• By performance: When both parties completely carry out their obligations as agreed, the contract comes to an end.
• By agreement: The parties may mutually agree to end the contract or to replace it with a new one before it is performed.
• By breach: When one party fails to perform his part of the contract, the innocent party is discharged and may sue for damages.
• By frustration (impossibility of performance): When an unforeseen event beyond the control of the parties, such as destruction of the subject matter or a change in the law, makes performance impossible, the contract is discharged.

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