WAEC SSCE - Government - 2007

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Feudalism is a system of government in which political leadership is based on land ownership. In a feudal system, a monarch grants land or fief to a vassal in exchange for loyalty and military service. The vassal then grants a portion of that land to a subordinate, who owes the same loyalty and military service to the vassal. This system of land ownership and loyalty forms a hierarchical structure that defines political and social relationships within the society.

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The main focus of the ECOWAS Monitoring Group (ECOMOG) is the maintenance of peace in troubled spots of West Africa. ECOMOG is a regional military organization established by the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) in 1990 to help restore peace and security to countries affected by conflicts or civil wars in West Africa. Its main mandate is to intervene in cases of conflict or instability in the region, protect civilians, and promote peaceful resolution of disputes. Therefore, option A is the correct answer.

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The Fascist State in Europe was Italy. Fascism is a political ideology that emphasizes extreme nationalism, authoritarianism, and the subordination of individual rights to the goals of the state. In Italy, the Fascist State was established under the leadership of Benito Mussolini, who came to power in 1922. Mussolini used a combination of propaganda, violence, and political maneuvering to consolidate his power and establish a totalitarian regime. The Fascist State in Italy was characterized by strict control over the media, suppression of political opposition, and the use of force to maintain order. The Fascist State also promoted the idea of a "corporate state," in which different social and economic groups were organized into specialized "corporations" that were meant to represent their interests within the state. While the Fascist State in Italy was eventually defeated in World War II, its legacy has had a lasting impact on Italian politics and society.

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A system of government that is made up of elected people is referred to as a representative government. This means that the citizens of the country vote for individuals who will represent them in the government. These elected officials are responsible for making laws and policies that benefit the citizens. In a representative government, the power is distributed among the elected officials who represent the interests of their constituents. The representatives are accountable to the people who elected them and can be removed from office if they do not fulfill their duties properly. Examples of countries with a representative government include the United States, France, and India.

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Senegal and The Gambia have practiced a confederal system of government. A confederal system of government is a form of government in which several independent states or regions come together to form a union or confederation. In this system, each state or region retains its sovereignty and has its own government, but they also have a central government that handles issues that affect the entire confederation. Senegal and The Gambia were once two separate countries but decided to form a confederation in 1982. The confederation lasted for seven years, during which both countries maintained their own governments and sovereignty, but shared a central government that handled issues such as defense, foreign affairs, and economic development. However, the confederation was dissolved in 1989 due to tensions between the two countries.

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The Council of Ministers of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) is made up of foreign affairs ministers. The OAU was a continental organization that was established in 1963 to promote unity and solidarity among African countries and to promote cooperation on political, economic, and social issues. The Council of Ministers was one of its key organs and was responsible for coordinating the activities of the organization and implementing its decisions. The Council of Ministers was composed of the foreign affairs ministers of member states, who met regularly to discuss issues of common concern and to develop strategies for addressing them. The foreign affairs ministers were chosen because they were responsible for the formulation and implementation of their countries' foreign policies, and they were therefore best placed to represent their countries' interests within the OAU.

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The popular British colonial system of administration in the protectorates in West Africa was indirect rule. This system involved the use of local rulers or traditional authorities to govern on behalf of the British colonial government. These local rulers were given power and authority to enforce British laws and policies within their communities. The colonial government would provide support and guidance, but the local rulers were responsible for the day-to-day administration of their communities. This system was seen as a cost-effective way of governing, as it relied on existing structures and authorities, and it allowed the British to exert control over the region without the need for a large colonial bureaucracy. However, it also had some negative consequences, as it reinforced traditional power structures and undermined the development of democratic institutions.

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The benefit of the principle of checks and balances is that it prevents domination of one organ of government by another. In a democratic government, power is divided between different branches or organs of government, such as the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Each branch has its own responsibilities and powers, but no single branch should have too much power or be able to dominate the others. The principle of checks and balances ensures that each branch has the ability to check the power of the others, preventing any one branch from becoming too powerful. For example, the legislative branch can pass laws, but the executive branch can veto those laws. Likewise, the judicial branch can strike down laws that are deemed unconstitutional. By ensuring that each branch has a say in the decision-making process and that no single branch is dominant, the principle of checks and balances helps to maintain the balance of power in a democratic government.

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In a unitary system of government, the degree of centralization is high. This is because in a unitary system, power is concentrated at the national or central level, with little or no power devolved to subnational units such as regions or states. The central government makes most of the important decisions and controls the resources of the country, while the regional or local governments are subordinate and carry out the policies of the central government. Therefore, the degree of centralization is high in a unitary system of government.

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Obedience to the laws of the state is a part of one's duties. Duties are obligations or responsibilities that an individual is expected to fulfill as a member of a society. Obedience to the laws of the state is an important duty of citizens because it helps maintain law and order, promotes the common good, and ensures the protection of individual rights and freedoms. By following the laws of the state, citizens are contributing to the smooth functioning of the society and demonstrating their commitment to the common good.

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Direct democracy is a system of government where citizens make decisions and participate directly in the decision-making process of the government. The idea of direct democracy has its origins in ancient Greece. In ancient Athens, citizens gathered in a central assembly to make decisions on public policy and legislation. This form of government was known as "demokratia," which means "rule by the people." The assembly was open to all citizens and was the primary decision-making body of the government. Direct democracy was an essential part of ancient Greek political life, and it allowed citizens to participate in the decision-making process of the government. However, it was limited to a small group of citizens who were free, adult males. Women, slaves, and foreigners were excluded from participating in the political process. The idea of direct democracy was later revived during the European Renaissance and Enlightenment periods, where it became a subject of philosophical and political discourse. However, it was not until the modern era that direct democracy was implemented on a larger scale. In summary, direct democracy emanated from ancient Greece, where citizens participated directly in the decision-making process of the government through the central assembly. This system of government allowed for greater citizen participation, but it was limited to a small group of citizens. The idea of direct democracy has since been revived and developed, becoming a subject of philosophical and political discourse throughout history.

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Fundamental Human Rights can be defined as the basic rights and freedoms that every person is entitled to, simply by virtue of being human. These rights are usually enshrined in the constitution or other legal documents, and they are meant to protect individuals from abuses of power by the state, institutions, or other individuals. Examples of fundamental human rights include the right to life, freedom from torture, freedom of expression, freedom of association, and the right to a fair trial. These rights are universal and inalienable, meaning they cannot be taken away or denied to any person based on their race, ethnicity, gender, religion, or any other characteristic.

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A classless society is theoretically obtainable in communism. This is because communism is an economic and political system where all property and resources are collectively owned by the people, and the means of production are controlled by the state. In such a system, there is no private ownership of property, and everyone works for the common good. The idea behind communism is that there will be no social classes, and everyone will be equal. However, in practice, most attempts at communism have resulted in the creation of a ruling class of government officials who have all the power and wealth, while the general population remains poor and oppressed. Feudalism, plutocracy, and capitalism all have social classes and class divisions built into their systems. Feudalism is a system of land ownership and labor where there are lords and serfs, and social mobility is extremely limited. Plutocracy is a government by the wealthy, where the wealthy class holds all the power and resources. Capitalism is an economic system where private individuals or companies own the means of production, and there is a large wealth gap between the rich and the poor. In summary, while a classless society is theoretically possible in communism, it has yet to be achieved in practice.

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The head of the Commonwealth of Nations is Queen Elizabeth II. She has held this position since 1952, and it is a ceremonial role that involves promoting cooperation and good relations between the member countries of the Commonwealth. The Commonwealth of Nations is an organization made up of 54 member countries, most of which are former colonies of the British Empire. Although the head of the Commonwealth is not a position of political power, it is a symbol of the strong ties and shared values that exist between these countries.

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The feature of capitalism is the maximization of profit. Capitalism is an economic system that is based on private ownership of the means of production and the creation of goods and services for profit. In a capitalist system, individuals and companies are motivated by the pursuit of profit, which is achieved by producing goods or providing services that are in demand in the marketplace. The profit motive is seen as a powerful incentive to encourage innovation, productivity, and efficiency, and it drives economic growth and development. However, capitalism also has its downsides, as it can lead to economic inequality and exploitation if not properly regulated. Nonetheless, the pursuit of profit is a fundamental feature of capitalism.

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Political sovereignty belongs to the people. Political sovereignty refers to the ultimate authority or power in a country or state. In a democratic society, the people are the ones who hold this power and are ultimately responsible for electing leaders and making decisions on behalf of the country. The legislature and executive are the branches of government responsible for making and enforcing laws, respectively, but they derive their authority from the people through the democratic process. The press, while an important part of a democratic society, does not hold political sovereignty.

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One of the defects of military government is the abuse of human rights. Military governments are led by military officers who may prioritize their own interests and those of their allies over the rights and needs of the civilian population. Military governments often suppress freedom of expression, restrict political activity, and may promote their own officers instead of qualified civilian leaders. This can lead to a lack of accountability and transparency in decision-making, and a disregard for the rule of law and individual rights. The abuse of human rights can result in arbitrary arrests, detention, torture, and even extrajudicial killings, which can have long-lasting negative effects on society and its institutions.

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In a confederal system, each of the component states is virtually sovereign. This means that they have a high degree of autonomy and are able to make decisions independently of the central government. The central government in a confederal system is relatively weak and its powers are limited to those that have been explicitly delegated by the component states. Confederal systems are often used in situations where there is a need to balance the desire for local autonomy with the need for a central coordinating authority. An example of a confederal system is the European Union, where member states retain a high degree of autonomy while cooperating on certain issues through the central EU institutions.

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The option related to the process of governing is "implementation and adjudication of laws." This refers to how the government enforces the laws it creates and how it interprets them when disputes arise. It involves the actions taken by the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government to carry out their duties and responsibilities. Essentially, it's the process by which the government operates and manages society according to the laws and regulations that it has established.

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A major feature of an Electoral Commission is political neutrality. This means that the commission is expected to be impartial and not take sides with any political party or candidate during an election. Its main role is to ensure free, fair, and transparent elections by administering the election process in a non-partisan manner, including voter registration, conducting the election, and announcing the results. The commission is usually established by law and operates independently of the government and other political parties. Its independence and neutrality are crucial to the credibility of the election process and the legitimacy of the elected government.

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Devolution of power is associated with a decentralized political system. In a decentralized political system, power and authority are distributed among different levels of government, with some degree of autonomy for local or regional governments. Devolution of power refers to the transfer of some powers and responsibilities from the central government to the regional or local governments, giving them more control over their own affairs. This can help to promote local decision-making, increase efficiency and effectiveness in service delivery, and empower citizens to participate in the democratic process. Decentralization and devolution of power are often seen as important components of democratic governance and can help to promote more responsive and accountable government.

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The right to rule based on norms, customs, and conventions of the people is referred to as traditional authority. In this type of authority, power is derived from the long-established customs and traditions of a society, which are usually passed down from generation to generation. The leader in a traditional authority system is typically someone who is recognized as the rightful ruler based on their lineage, birthright, or other customary factors. The authority of the traditional ruler is often not questioned and is considered to be natural and legitimate by the people. This type of authority is often found in traditional societies or in societies where there is a strong emphasis on cultural heritage and history.

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The highest stage of socialism is communism. Communism is a political and economic system in which property and resources are collectively owned by the community as a whole, and goods and services are produced and distributed according to the needs of each individual. In a communist society, there is no private ownership of property or means of production, and no social classes or hierarchy. The goal of communism is to achieve a stateless and classless society, where all members have equal access to resources and opportunities. However, the implementation of communism has been controversial, with some arguing that it can lead to authoritarianism and a lack of individual freedom.

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Communalism is a social system in which individuals work together in a community to achieve common goals and share resources. Therefore, it ensures that everybody within the society is provided with shared resources such as land, water, and other essential resources necessary for survival. In this sense, communalism promotes the idea of collective ownership and responsibility, and people work together to ensure that everyone's basic needs are met. Thus, communalism is more concerned with the collective welfare of the community than individual interests.

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Communism was popularized by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. They wrote the famous political treatise called "The Communist Manifesto," which outlined the principles of communism as an alternative to capitalism. Marx and Engels believed that capitalism was inherently exploitative and unfair to workers, who were forced to sell their labor to capitalists in exchange for wages. They argued that communism would create a classless society in which the means of production were collectively owned and controlled by the people, rather than by private capitalists. According to Marx and Engels, communism would eliminate the exploitation of workers, create a more equal distribution of wealth, and lead to a more just and humane society. While communism has been implemented in various forms in different countries throughout history, its popularity has waxed and waned, and it remains a controversial and debated political ideology.

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One feature of a Unitary State is that it has a centralized system of government where all the powers are held by a single central government. The central government may choose to delegate powers to local or regional governments, but these powers are not guaranteed by the constitution and can be revoked at any time. This means that there is an absence of a constitutional division of power to the sub-national units. The size, economic development or heterogeneity of the population within the state may vary, but these factors are not necessarily defining characteristics of a Unitary State.

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A type of government which allows co-ordinate units to make law is a federal government. In a federal government system, power is divided between a central government and smaller, regional governments, with each level of government having its own sphere of authority. This means that the central government and the regional governments can both make laws within their own areas of responsibility, and these laws must be respected by all other levels of government and citizens of the country. Federal systems are often used in large and diverse countries where there are distinct regional differences or where there is a need to balance centralized power with regional autonomy. Examples of federal systems include the United States, Germany, Australia, and Brazil.

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The scholar who defined sovereignty as an absolute power vested in one authority was Jean Bodin. Bodin was a French philosopher and jurist who lived in the sixteenth century. He is known for his work "Six Books of the Commonwealth," where he defined the concept of sovereignty. According to Bodin, sovereignty is the supreme power of the state, which is vested in a single person or authority. This power is absolute and indivisible, meaning that there can be no other power that can compete with it. The sovereign has the authority to make and enforce laws, to tax, to wage war, and to do whatever is necessary to maintain the order and security of the state. Bodin's idea of sovereignty was a significant departure from earlier concepts of sovereignty, which saw it as being divided among different branches of government or shared among the people. His work had a significant influence on political theory and was especially important in the development of the modern nation-state. In summary, Jean Bodin was the scholar who defined sovereignty as an absolute power vested in one authority. His concept of sovereignty remains an essential idea in political theory to this day.

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Establishing an independent judiciary is a crucial way of protecting the rights of citizens. This is because an independent judiciary ensures that there is a fair and impartial legal system that is not influenced by political or other external pressures. As a result, citizens are able to receive a fair trial and have their rights protected, regardless of their social status or political affiliation. This helps to create a sense of trust and confidence in the legal system, which is important for maintaining social harmony and ensuring that citizens feel secure in their rights and freedoms. Furthermore, an independent judiciary helps to prevent abuse of power and ensure that those in positions of authority are held accountable for their actions, thus further protecting the rights of citizens.

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The aim of promoting a common lingua franca is not necessarily a requirement for the existence of a state. While it can be helpful in facilitating communication and fostering unity among diverse groups within a state, it is not a fundamental necessity for a state to function. On the other hand, the other options listed are crucial for the existence of a state. The promotion of economic independence is necessary to ensure that a state can sustain itself and meet the needs of its citizens. The provision of welfare services is important to promote the well-being and quality of life of the people within a state. The maintenance of external relations is crucial to ensure that a state can engage with other nations and protect its interests in the international community. Overall, while the promotion of a common language can be beneficial for a state, it is not as fundamental to the state's existence as the other aims listed.

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The government that is constituted by several parties after a general election is referred to as a national government. This is because it is composed of representatives from different political parties who have come together to form a coalition government. The aim of this type of government is to have a broad-based representation of different political ideologies, which allows for more inclusive decision-making and a wider range of perspectives. The term "national" also emphasizes the idea of unity and the common interest of the country, rather than the interests of a particular political party.

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The two major factors that contributed to the development of capitalism were the theory of individual rights and the Industrial Revolution in Britain. The theory of individual rights emphasized the importance of individual freedom, including the right to own property and to engage in economic activity without interference from the state or other individuals. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain in the 18th century, transformed the economy by introducing new technologies and methods of production, leading to increased efficiency and productivity. This allowed for the growth of large-scale factories and industries, and created new opportunities for entrepreneurs and investors to accumulate wealth. These factors, combined with the emergence of new financial institutions and innovations, such as joint stock companies and paper money, laid the foundation for the development of modern capitalism as we know it today.

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The political parties that were established in West Africa between 1945 and 1965 fought for political independence. During this period, most African countries were under colonial rule, and political parties emerged to challenge the colonial powers and demand independence for their countries. These political parties were made up of nationalists who wanted to promote the interests of their countries and free their people from colonial oppression. The struggle for political independence involved various forms of protests, civil disobedience, and negotiations with colonial powers. Ultimately, these efforts paid off, as many African countries gained independence in the 1960s.

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The major defect of foreign policy in West Africa is poor leadership. Foreign policy refers to a country's strategy in dealing with other countries, and in West Africa, this strategy is largely determined by the leaders of the various countries in the region. Poor leadership can lead to a lack of coordination and cooperation among West African countries, making it difficult to achieve common goals and address common challenges. Additionally, poor leadership can result in corruption, political instability, and human rights abuses, which can undermine the legitimacy and effectiveness of foreign policy initiatives. Without strong and effective leadership, foreign policy in West Africa is likely to be ineffective and may even exacerbate existing problems in the region.

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A political party is an organized group that seeks to gain power in a state or government by participating in elections and influencing public policy. Political parties typically represent different ideologies, interests, and values, and work to develop and promote their own political platforms to win elections and gain political power. The goal of a political party is to win elections and hold political power in order to enact their policies and programs.

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In a capitalist state, the society is polarized into the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The bourgeoisie refers to the wealthy class who own the means of production, such as factories and businesses. The proletariat, on the other hand, refers to the working class who do not own the means of production but sell their labor for wages. This polarization is a result of the capitalist system where the pursuit of profit and accumulation of wealth is prioritized over social equality and fair distribution of resources. The gap between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat can lead to social and economic inequality, as the bourgeoisie have greater access to resources and power, while the proletariat may struggle to meet their basic needs.

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The primary function of the judiciary is to interpret laws. When there is a dispute or disagreement about the meaning or application of a law, it is the role of the judiciary to interpret the law and make a decision based on that interpretation. The judiciary plays a critical role in ensuring that laws are applied fairly and consistently, and that the rights of individuals are protected. While the judiciary may also play a role in enforcing laws and maintaining law and order, its primary function is to interpret laws.

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A one-party system is commonly associated with a totalitarian government. In this system, there is only one political party that is allowed to exist, and all other political parties are banned or prevented from participating in elections. The ruling party exercises total control over the government and the society, and there is no opposition or alternative voices to challenge the ruling party's policies or decisions. This type of government is often characterized by a lack of political freedom, civil liberties, and human rights, as well as a tendency towards authoritarianism and repression.

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Production and distribution of goods and services are controlled by the State in socialism. In a socialist economy, the means of production are owned and controlled by the State or the community as a whole, rather than by private individuals or corporations. The State determines how resources are allocated and how goods and services are produced and distributed, with the goal of achieving greater economic equality and social welfare for all members of society. This can include nationalizing key industries, such as energy, transportation, and healthcare, and implementing centralized planning to guide economic activity. Socialism can take many different forms, ranging from democratic socialism to more authoritarian models, and is often contrasted with capitalism, where the means of production are privately owned and economic activity is driven by market forces.

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The Exclusive List in a federal system state includes defence, and it refers to a list of powers and responsibilities that are reserved for the central or federal government. In a federal system, power is divided between the central government and the state or regional governments. The Exclusive List is a part of this division of power, and it outlines the areas in which only the federal government can make laws and take action. Defence is one of the areas included in the Exclusive List, which means that only the federal government can make decisions regarding the military and the country's defence. This is to ensure that there is a unified and coordinated approach to national security and defence, rather than each state making its own decisions in this area. The other items mentioned in the question, such as education, market, and transportation, are not typically included in the Exclusive List, and are often areas of responsibility that are shared between the federal and state governments.

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The introduction of the elective principle in colonial West Africa allowed Africans to be elected into the Legislative Councils. Before the introduction of this principle, the colonial authorities appointed members of the Legislative Councils, and Africans had no representation in these councils. The introduction of the elective principle allowed Africans to vote for their own representatives and for those representatives to be elected into the Legislative Councils. This gave Africans a voice in the legislative process and allowed them to participate in the governance of their own countries. However, it is important to note that the elective principle did not immediately lead to full independence or self-governance for African countries, and many continued to struggle for these rights for many years to come.

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(a) Origin of the Commonwealth

The Commonwealth (formerly the British Commonwealth of Nations) is a voluntary association of independent states that were formerly under British colonial rule, together with Britain itself. Its origin lies in the gradual grant of self-government to Britain's colonies and dominions. The idea was first given formal expression at the Imperial Conferences of the early twentieth century, and the Balfour Declaration of 1926 recognised the dominions (such as Canada, Australia and New Zealand) as autonomous and equal in status to Britain. The Statute of Westminster in 1931 gave legal force to this equality. As more colonies, including Nigeria in 1960, gained independence, they chose to remain associated with Britain, transforming the body into the modern Commonwealth of Nations, a free association of equal and independent sovereign states owing common allegiance to the British Crown as its symbolic head.

(b) Four benefits of membership of the Commonwealth

1. Economic and technical assistance: Members receive aid, grants, loans and technical cooperation through schemes such as the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation.
2. Educational benefits: Members enjoy scholarships, exchange programmes and mutual recognition of qualifications, for example the Commonwealth Scholarship scheme.
3. Promotion of trade and economic cooperation: Membership opens preferential trade and investment opportunities among member states.
4. International cooperation and solidarity: Members gain a forum for consultation on world affairs, mutual diplomatic support, and promotion of democracy, human rights and good governance, plus sporting and cultural links such as the Commonwealth Games.

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(a) Meaning of Foreign Policy

Foreign policy refers to the set of principles, objectives and strategies adopted by a state to guide and protect its interests in its relations with other states and international organisations. It defines how a country conducts its external affairs in order to safeguard its national interest, security and prestige in the international community.

(b) Five factors that influence Nigeria's foreign policy

1. National interest: The paramount consideration is the protection of Nigeria's economic, security and political interests, especially within Africa.
2. Geographical location and size: Nigeria's position in West Africa and its large size and population give it a leadership role that shapes its policy, for example its Afrocentric focus.
3. Economic capability: The strength of the economy, particularly oil wealth, determines the resources available to pursue foreign policy goals such as aid to other African states.
4. Military strength: The size and capability of the armed forces affect Nigeria's ability to intervene, as seen in ECOMOG peace-keeping operations.
5. Public opinion and ideology: Domestic public opinion, the pressure of interest groups, and ideological commitments such as non-alignment and anti-colonialism influence policy direction.
6. Nature of leadership: The disposition and personality of the Head of State or government strongly colours the tone and priorities of the country's external relations.

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Federalism is a system in which governmental powers are shared between a central (national) government and component (regional or state) governments, each supreme within its own sphere. Several factors made federalism the most suitable system for Nigeria.

1. Large size of the country: Nigeria's vast geographical area made unitary control from a single centre impracticable, so power had to be devolved to component units.
2. Ethnic and cultural diversity: The existence of many ethnic groups (Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba, Igbo and hundreds of minorities) with different languages and customs demanded a system that would allow each group some measure of self-rule.
3. Fear of domination by the minorities and larger groups: Smaller ethnic groups feared being swallowed up by the larger ones, so federalism was adopted to protect them and give each region autonomy.
4. Existence of regional differences in development: Uneven economic, educational and social development among the regions made a single uniform policy unworkable, favouring regional governments.
5. Colonial administrative arrangement: The British administered Nigeria as separate protectorates and later as regions (North, East and West), laying a structural foundation for a federal arrangement.
6. Desire for unity in diversity: Federalism offered a way to hold the diverse peoples together in one nation while allowing each unit to preserve its identity, thus promoting national unity without total centralisation.

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Six merits of the Richards Constitution of 1946 in Nigeria

1. Introduction of the federal principle: It divided the country into three regions, North, West and East, and thereby laid the foundation for the federal system of government in Nigeria.
2. Establishment of regional councils: It created a House of Assembly for each region (and Houses of Chiefs in the North and West), which brought government closer to the people at the regional level.
3. Unification of the country: For the first time it brought the Northern and Southern provinces together under a single central legislative council, promoting national unity.
4. Wider African representation: It increased the number of Africans in the Central Legislative Council, giving Nigerians a greater voice in the affairs of their country than before.
5. Inclusion of the North in the central legislature: It brought the Northern region into the central law-making body for the first time, integrating the North into national politics.
6. Encouragement of regional development: By recognising the regions, it allowed each region to attend to its peculiar needs and encouraged development along regional lines.

It also provided useful political experience that prepared Nigerians for greater self-government under later constitutions.

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(a) Definition of Fundamental Human Rights

Fundamental Human Rights are the basic rights and freedoms which every human being is entitled to enjoy by virtue of being a person, and which are recognised, guaranteed and protected by the constitution of a state. They are inalienable rights considered so essential to human dignity and existence that they cannot lawfully be taken away, and they include the right to life, personal liberty, fair hearing, freedom of expression, freedom of movement and freedom from discrimination.

(b) Five means of safeguarding Fundamental Human Rights in a state

1. Entrenchment in the constitution: Writing the rights into a rigid, supreme constitution makes them difficult to alter and gives them the highest legal protection.
2. An independent judiciary: Impartial and independent courts interpret and enforce these rights and provide redress to citizens whose rights are violated.
3. The rule of law: Ensuring that everyone, including government, is subject to the law and that no one is punished except according to law protects citizens against arbitrary treatment.
4. A free press and free mass media: A vibrant press exposes abuses of rights and creates public awareness, thereby serving as a watchdog against violations.
5. Separation of powers: Dividing power among the executive, legislature and judiciary so that each checks the others prevents the concentration and abuse of power that endangers rights.

Other safeguards include the activities of human rights organisations and pressure groups, and the provision of legal aid so that the poor can defend their rights.

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Six features of a parliamentary system of government

1. Dual executive: There are two heads, a ceremonial head of state (a monarch or president) who reigns but does not rule, and a head of government (the Prime Minister) who exercises real executive power.
2. Fusion of powers: There is no strict separation between the executive and the legislature; members of the executive (the Cabinet) are drawn from and remain members of the legislature.
3. Collective responsibility: The Prime Minister and the members of the Cabinet are jointly and collectively responsible to the parliament for their actions and stand or fall together.
4. Supremacy of parliament: The parliament is supreme; the government is accountable to it and can be removed through a vote of no confidence.
5. The Prime Minister as head of government: Executive power is exercised by the Prime Minister, who is usually the leader of the majority party in parliament and appoints the Cabinet from among its members.
6. Party discipline and majority rule: The government is formed by the party (or coalition) with a majority of seats, and strong party discipline binds members to support their party's policies.

A further feature is the existence of an official opposition and the power of the executive to dissolve parliament and call fresh elections.

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(a) Government as an art of governing

Government as an art of governing refers to the actual process and practice of ruling or administering a state, that is, the exercise of the machinery of state to make and enforce laws, formulate and carry out policies, maintain order and provide for the welfare of the people. In this sense government is seen as an activity or skill, the practical business of managing the affairs of a state and controlling the people within it.

(b) Why government is important as an art of governing

1. Maintenance of law and order: Through the art of governing, the state makes and enforces laws that keep peace, prevent chaos and protect life and property.
2. Protection of the state and its citizens: It provides for internal security and external defence, safeguarding the territory and the people against threats.
3. Provision of social services and welfare: It enables the state to provide amenities such as education, health, roads and water for the well-being of the people.
4. Settlement of disputes: It establishes courts and institutions that resolve conflicts among individuals and groups peacefully and justly.
5. Regulation of the economy: It manages and directs economic activities, controls resources and formulates policies that promote development and prosperity.
6. Promotion of unity and common goals: It harmonises the diverse interests of citizens and directs them towards achieving common national objectives, thereby ensuring orderly and progressive society.

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(a) Meaning of Local Government

Local government is the lowest tier of government, established by law to administer a defined local area, and given the power to make bye-laws, raise some revenue and provide services for the people within its area of authority. It is usually run by elected councils and officials who are closest to the grassroots, and it exists to bring government nearer to the people and to cater for purely local needs.

(b) Five sources of Local Government revenue

1. Statutory allocation: The share of national revenue paid to local councils from the Federation Account by the federal government forms their largest source of income.
2. Grants from the state government: Local governments receive grants and a share of the internally generated revenue of their state governments.
3. Local rates and taxes: They collect community or tenement rates and certain taxes such as market and cattle taxes from residents and traders within their areas.
4. Licences, fees and permits: Income is earned from the issue of licences and permits, for example for bicycles, trucks, liquor, kiosks and radio, and from various fees.
5. Fines and charges from council services: Revenue comes from fees and charges on services such as motor parks, markets, abattoirs, health facilities and from court fines.

Other sources include rents from council property, loans, and profits from any commercial ventures owned by the council.

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The Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN) was formed in 1978 under the leadership of Chief Obafemi Awolowo during the Second Republic. It was largely a successor to the old Action Group and drew its strongest support from the South-West.

(a) Aims and objectives of the UPN

1. Free education at all levels: The party pledged free, qualitative education from primary to university level to eradicate ignorance and illiteracy.
2. Free health services: It aimed at providing free medical care for all citizens to eliminate disease and improve public health.
3. Full (gainful) employment: The party sought to guarantee jobs for all able and willing citizens and to reduce unemployment.
4. Integrated rural development: It planned to develop the rural areas by providing roads, water, electricity and agricultural support to check rural-urban migration.
5. Eradication of poverty, ignorance and disease: The overall philosophy was social welfare and the creation of an egalitarian society based on democratic socialism.
6. Promotion of national unity and democratic government: It aimed to sustain democracy, the rule of law and a united Nigeria.

(b) Four achievements of the party

1. Free education: In the states it controlled (such as the old Oyo, Ogun, Ondo, Lagos and Bendel states) it introduced free primary and secondary education, greatly increasing school enrolment.
2. Free health services: It established free health-care programmes and built hospitals and health centres in its states.
3. Rural and infrastructural development: It constructed roads, provided pipe-borne water and rural electrification and set up housing schemes.
4. Effective and accountable governance: The UPN-controlled states became models of prudent, welfare-oriented administration, demonstrating disciplined and people-centred government.

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Six factors that led to the growth of nationalism in Nigeria before 1945

1. The impact of Western education: Education produced an enlightened elite who became conscious of their rights, understood the principles of freedom and self-government, and led the demand for political rights.
2. The activities of the press: Newspapers such as the Lagos Daily News and the West African Pilot exposed the injustices of colonial rule, educated the people politically and awakened national consciousness.
3. Formation of political parties and associations: Bodies such as the Nigerian National Democratic Party (1923) and the Nigerian Youth Movement (1934) organised the people and voiced their grievances against colonial rule.
4. Economic exploitation and grievances: Resentment against colonial economic policies, discrimination in employment and pay, heavy taxation and the domination of trade by foreign firms bred discontent and the desire for change.
5. Influence of returnees and Pan-Africanism: Nigerians who had studied or lived abroad, together with Pan-African movements and the ideas of leaders such as Marcus Garvey, inspired racial pride and the demand for self-rule.
6. The influence of Christian missionaries and returned ex-slaves: Missionary activity and the return of educated ex-slaves helped spread new ideas of liberty, equality and self-improvement.

Other factors include improved communication and transport, which brought people together and eased the spread of nationalist ideas, and racial discrimination that united Nigerians against colonial rule.

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Six external limitations to the exercise of the sovereignty of the state

Although a sovereign state has supreme authority over its own territory, in practice its sovereignty is limited from outside by the following:

1. International law: A state is expected to conduct its affairs in conformity with the accepted rules and conventions of international law, which restrict what it may lawfully do in relation to other states.
2. Membership of international organisations: By joining bodies such as the United Nations, the African Union and ECOWAS, a state accepts their charters, obligations and decisions, which limit its freedom of action.
3. Treaties and international agreements: When a state signs treaties or pacts, it binds itself to honour the terms, thereby surrendering part of its freedom to act as it pleases.
4. Diplomacy and international public opinion: The need to maintain good relations and a good image before other states and the world community compels a state to moderate its conduct.
5. Economic interdependence: Dependence on other states for trade, aid, loans and investment, and the conditions attached to them by donors and bodies such as the IMF and World Bank, constrain a state's decisions.
6. Military alliances and the balance of power: Defence pacts, alliances and the fear of stronger nations or of collective sanction restrain a state from acting entirely as it wishes.

The activities of powerful multinational corporations and the influence of super-powers are further external constraints.

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Six features of the traditional Yoruba political system

1. The Oba as head: Each Yoruba town or kingdom was headed by an Oba, a sacred and revered monarch regarded as second in command to the gods (Alaye or Kabiyesi), who was the political, religious and judicial head of the community.
2. Monarchy based on ruling houses: The office of Oba was hereditary within recognised ruling houses, and a new Oba was chosen from the eligible houses by the kingmakers.
3. Rule by kingmakers and a council of chiefs: The Oba did not rule alone but governed with the advice and consent of the Oyo Mesi (in Oyo) or a council of chiefs, who selected the Oba and checked his powers.
4. Checks and balances: The powers of the Oba were checked by institutions such as the Oyo Mesi, led by the Bashorun, and the Ogboni society, so that a tyrannical Oba could be asked to abdicate or commit suicide, guarding against absolutism.
5. Decentralised administration: The kingdom was divided into wards, quarters and villages headed by subordinate chiefs (Baale) who administered their areas and were responsible to the Oba, allowing local self-government.
6. The Ogboni and other institutions: Powerful bodies such as the Ogboni secret society performed judicial, legislative and religious functions and served as a further check on the Oba.

The system also featured a standing military organisation, headed by the Are-Ona-Kakanfo, for the defence of the kingdom.