WAEC SSCE - Islamic Studies - 2009 (Essay)

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Muhammad (S.A.W.) was born in Makkah about 570 C.E. into the clan of Banu Hashim of the Quraysh. Before prophethood he was known for truthfulness and trustworthiness, earning the title al-Amin (the trustworthy).

Preparation. As he grew, he became distressed by the idolatry, injustice and corruption of Makkan society. He began to withdraw for meditation to the cave of Hira on the Mountain of Light (Jabal an-Nur) outside Makkah, spending days in reflection and worship of the One God.

The first revelation. In the month of Ramadan, when he was about forty years old, the Angel Jibril (Gabriel) came to him in the cave and commanded, "Iqra’" (Read/Recite). Muhammad replied that he could not read. The angel embraced him firmly three times and then revealed the first verses of Suratul-‘Alaq: "Read in the name of your Lord who created; created man from a clot..." (Q96:1-5).

His reaction. Trembling with awe, he hurried home to his wife Khadijah and asked to be covered. She comforted and reassured him. She took him to her cousin Waraqah bin Nawfal, a learned Christian, who recognised that this was the same great angel (an-Namus) that had come to Musa, and confirmed that Muhammad had been chosen as a prophet.

Confirmation and the call. Revelation paused for a time (fatrat al-wahy), then resumed with Suratul-Muddaththir: "O you who are wrapped up, arise and warn" (Q74:1-2), commissioning him to convey the message. Thus Muhammad became the Prophet and Messenger of Allah, first preaching secretly, then openly, calling people to worship the One God.

His prophethood was the seal of prophethood (Khatam an-Nabiyyin), Q33:40.

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(a) Completion of the Hadith

On the authority of Abu Sa‘id al-Khudri (R.A.), the Prophet (S.A.W.) said:

"Man ra’a minkum munkaran fal-yughayyirhu bi-yadihi, fa-in lam yastati‘ fa-bi-lisanihi, fa-in lam yastati‘ fa-bi-qalbihi, wa dhalika ad‘afu al-iman." (Reported by Muslim)

(b) Translation

"Whoever among you sees an evil, let him change it with his hand; if he is not able, then with his tongue; and if he is not able, then with his heart, and that is the weakest of faith."

Lessons of the Hadith

1. It is an obligation upon Muslims to forbid evil and enjoin good (al-amr bil-ma‘ruf wan-nahyu ‘anil-munkar).
2. Evil should be changed by action (the hand) where one has the authority and ability, such as leaders and parents.
3. Where action is not possible, one must speak out against the evil with the tongue, by advice, teaching or warning.
4. If even that is impossible, one must at least hate the evil in the heart and dissociate from it.
5. Hating evil in the heart is the weakest level of faith, showing that faith has degrees and increases or decreases.
6. The Hadith preserves the moral health of the Muslim society and prevents the spread of vice.
7. It teaches wisdom and gradation: one acts according to one's ability and position, avoiding greater harm.
8. Silence and total inaction in the face of evil, without even rejecting it in the heart, is a sign of the absence of faith.

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Abu ‘Isa Muhammad ibn ‘Isa at-Tirmidhi (c. 824-892 C.E.) was one of the six great compilers of Hadith. He was born in Tirmidh and travelled widely in search of Hadith, studying under Imam al-Bukhari and others. His contributions to the science of Hadith include:

1. Compilation of al-Jami‘ (Sunan at-Tirmidhi), one of the six authentic Hadith collections (al-Kutub as-Sittah), arranged by chapters of jurisprudence for ease of reference.
2. Grading of Hadith. He was the first to classify traditions systematically as sahih (sound), hasan (good), gharib (rare) and da‘if (weak), and he popularised the term hasan as a distinct grade.
3. Comment on the status of each Hadith. After most traditions he stated its degree of authenticity, the opinions of jurists on it, and which scholars acted upon it, thereby linking Hadith to Fiqh.
4. Preservation of the chains of narration (Isnad). He carefully recorded the narrators and defects of narrations, aiding the critical evaluation of reports.
5. Work on the narrators. He wrote Kitab al-‘Ilal on the hidden defects of Hadith and discussed the reliability of transmitters.
6. A model for later scholars. His method of combining narration, grading and juristic discussion became a standard reference for students of Hadith.
7. Wide circulation and teaching. His collection spread the authentic sayings of the Prophet and preserved the Sunnah for the Ummah.

Through these efforts, Imam at-Tirmidhi greatly advanced the science of Hadith criticism and preserved the Prophetic tradition.

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After the Hijrah in 622 C.E., the Prophet (S.A.W.) achieved remarkable success in Madina, transforming it into the first Islamic state. The factors responsible for his success include:

1. Divine support and revelation. Continuous guidance from Allah through the Qur’an directed his affairs and gave the Muslims confidence and victory.
2. Building of the Mosque (Masjid an-Nabawi). It became the centre of worship, learning, administration, and community meetings, uniting the believers.
3. Brotherhood (Mu’akhah). He established brotherhood between the Muhajirun (emigrants) and the Ansar (helpers), sharing wealth and homes, which knit the community together.
4. The Constitution of Madina. He drew up a treaty defining the rights and duties of Muslims, Jews and other groups, establishing law, order and mutual defence.
5. His noble character and leadership. His honesty, justice, mercy and wisdom won the hearts of the people and gained him loyalty.
6. Willing support of the Ansar. The people of Madina had already accepted Islam through the Pledges of ‘Aqabah and gave him sincere protection and help.
7. Successful battles and treaties. Victories such as Badr, and treaties such as Hudaybiyyah, strengthened the position of Islam and spread its influence.
8. Organisation of the state. He established Zakat, laws, judiciary, defence and diplomacy, giving the community a firm structure.
9. Unity and discipline of the Muslims. The believers were bound by faith, obedience and readiness for sacrifice in the cause of Allah.

These factors combined to make Madina the cradle of Islamic civilisation and secured the triumph of the Prophet's mission.

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The chapters (suwar) of the Qur’an revealed after the Hijrah to Madina are called Madani. They reflect the needs of the established Muslim community and its new state. Their main features are:

1. Length of verses and chapters. They generally have long verses (ayat) and long chapters, dealing with matters in detail.
2. Legislation (Ahkam). They contain detailed laws on worship, transactions, marriage, divorce, inheritance, criminal punishments (hudud), war and peace, since the community now needed governance.
3. Social and communal matters. They address the organisation of society, family life, justice and the rights and duties of citizens.
4. Address to "O you who believe" (Ya ayyuhal-ladhina amanu). Many verses begin with this form, addressing the established body of believers.
5. Mention of the hypocrites (Munafiqun). They expose and warn against the hypocrites, who appeared only after Islam gained strength in Madina.
6. Dialogue with the People of the Book. They address the Jews and Christians, inviting them to Islam and refuting their claims.
7. Jihad and its rulings. They deal with permission for and the laws of armed struggle in defence of the faith.
8. Reference to events. They mention battles and incidents such as Badr, Uhud and the treaties of the Madinan period.

Examples of Madinan chapters include al-Baqarah, Ali ‘Imran, an-Nisa’, al-Ma’idah and al-Anfal. In contrast, Makkan chapters are mostly short, focusing on faith, resurrection and morals.

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Sujud al-Qabli is the prostration of forgetfulness (part of Sujud as-Sahw) performed before the final salutation (taslim) to make up for a deficiency, forgetfulness or doubt that occurs during the prescribed prayer (Salat). It is performed as follows:

1. The worshipper completes the prayer up to the final sitting and recites the tashahhud (and the prayer upon the Prophet).
2. Before making the closing salam, and while still sitting, he says "Allahu Akbar" and goes down into the first prostration (sujud), just as in the normal prayer, praising Allah (Subhana Rabbiyal-A‘la).
3. He raises his head saying "Allahu Akbar" and sits between the two prostrations for a moment.
4. He says "Allahu Akbar" again and performs the second prostration in the same manner.
5. He raises his head, sits, and then makes the final taslim to the right and to the left, thus ending the prayer.

When it is done: the qabli (before-salam) prostration is generally made when the worshipper has omitted something, such as forgetting the first tashahhud, or when he is in doubt and builds upon the lesser (certain) number of rak‘ahs. It compensates for the shortcoming and completes the prayer, in accordance with the practice of the Prophet (S.A.W.).

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‘Iddah is the prescribed waiting period a woman must observe after the termination of her marriage by divorce or the death of her husband, before she may remarry. Its purpose is to ascertain whether she is pregnant (to protect lineage), to allow for possible reconciliation, and to mourn the deceased husband. The types are:

1. ‘Iddah of a divorced woman who menstruates. She observes three menstrual cycles (quru’). "Divorced women shall wait for three menstrual periods" (Q2:228). During this time she remains in her husband's house and he may take her back if it is a revocable divorce.
2. ‘Iddah of a woman who does not menstruate (because of old age or being too young). Her waiting period is three lunar months. "...their waiting period is three months" (Q65:4).
3. ‘Iddah of a pregnant woman. Her waiting period lasts until she delivers her child, whether by divorce or death of the husband. "For those pregnant, their term is until they deliver their burden" (Q65:4).
4. ‘Iddah of a widow (death of the husband). If not pregnant, she waits four lunar months and ten days. "Those who die and leave wives behind, they shall wait four months and ten days" (Q2:234). She also observes mourning (ihdad), avoiding adornment, perfume and going out unnecessarily.
5. ‘Iddah of a woman whose marriage was not consummated. If she is divorced before the marriage is consummated, there is no ‘iddah upon her (Q33:49), except in the case of the husband's death, when she observes the widow's ‘iddah.

How it is observed: the woman generally remains in the marital home, does not remarry until the period ends, and in the case of widowhood or irrevocable divorce refrains from adornment. The purpose is fulfilled once the period is complete.

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Completion of the Hadith (No. 9 of an-Nawawi)

On the authority of Abu Hurayrah (R.A.), who said: I heard the Messenger of Allah (S.A.W.) say:

"What I have forbidden to you, avoid; and what I have commanded you (to do), do as much of it as you can. Verily it was only the excessive questioning and their disagreeing with their prophets that destroyed those who were before you." (Reported by al-Bukhari and Muslim)

Lessons of the Hadith

1. Whatever the Prophet has prohibited must be avoided completely, for prohibitions have no exception except in cases of dire necessity.
2. Commands are to be carried out according to one's ability; Allah does not burden a soul beyond its capacity.
3. Islam is a religion of ease and moderation, not hardship.
4. Excessive and unnecessary questioning is blameworthy and can lead to complication in religion.
5. The obedience of the Prophet is obligatory, as obedience to him is obedience to Allah.
6. Disputing with and disobeying the prophets was the cause of the destruction of earlier nations, and this is a warning to Muslims.
7. The believer should submit and act, rather than argue and delay.
8. Avoiding what is forbidden is given priority, since refraining is within everyone's ability while doing may be limited by capacity.

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Both ‘Umrah and Hajj are pilgrimages to the Sacred House in Makkah, but they differ in several ways. Five differences are:

1. Ruling and obligation. Hajj is one of the five pillars of Islam and is obligatory (fard) once in a lifetime upon the able Muslim; ‘Umrah, according to the majority, is recommended (sunnah) or a lesser obligation, not a pillar.
2. Time of performance. Hajj can only be performed in the specific months of Hajj (Shawwal, Dhul-Qa‘dah, and the first ten days of Dhul-Hijjah); ‘Umrah may be performed at any time of the year.
3. The rites (Manasik) involved. Hajj includes standing at ‘Arafah, staying at Muzdalifah and Mina, stoning the Jamarat and animal sacrifice; ‘Umrah consists mainly of Ihram, Tawaf, Sa‘i and shaving or trimming the hair, without ‘Arafah, Muzdalifah, Mina or stoning.
4. Duration. Hajj takes several days (from the 8th to the 13th of Dhul-Hijjah); ‘Umrah can be completed within a few hours.
5. The essential pillar of ‘Arafah. Standing at ‘Arafah is the greatest pillar of Hajj, without which Hajj is invalid; ‘Umrah has no such standing and no fixed day.
6. Reward and rank. Hajj is greater in status, and its reward, when accepted, is nothing but Paradise; ‘Umrah, though rewarding, does not carry the same rank, and is sometimes called "the lesser pilgrimage".

Thus ‘Umrah is the minor pilgrimage while Hajj is the major pilgrimage.

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‘Abd ar-Rahman Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406 C.E.) was a Muslim historian, jurist, sociologist and statesman born in Tunis. He is regarded as the father of the philosophy of history and of sociology. His contributions include:

1. The Muqaddimah (Prolegomena). His famous introduction to his world history laid down a scientific method for studying society and civilisation, making him a pioneer of the social sciences.
2. The concept of ‘Asabiyyah (group solidarity). He explained the rise and fall of dynasties and civilisations through the strength or weakness of social cohesion, a lasting contribution to political thought.
3. Historical criticism. He introduced critical analysis of historical reports, rejecting exaggeration and testing narratives against reason and social laws, thereby refining Islamic historiography.
4. His major history, Kitab al-‘Ibar, a universal history of the Arabs, Berbers and neighbouring peoples, preserved much information about Islamic and North African civilisation.
5. Islamic jurisprudence and scholarship. He served as a Maliki judge (Qadi) in Egypt, upholding justice and reforming the judiciary according to the Shari‘ah.
6. Education and economics. He wrote on the value of learning, the crafts, taxation, labour and the market, anticipating many later economic ideas.
7. Defence of the Muslim community. His works showed the achievements of Islamic civilisation and gave later Muslims a framework to understand their history and the causes of decline.

Through these works Ibn Khaldun enriched Islamic scholarship and gave the world enduring tools for the study of history and society.

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The Qur’an was revealed piecemeal over about twenty-three years and was preserved by memorisation and by writing on materials such as palm-leaves, bones and parchment during the Prophet's lifetime. Its collection into one authoritative written text (the Mushaf) took place under the early Caliphs. The reasons for its standardization were:

1. Death of many memorisers (Huffaz). After the Battle of Yamamah, many companions who had memorised the Qur’an were killed. ‘Umar feared the loss of the Qur’an and urged Abu Bakr to have it collected into one book.
2. To preserve the Qur’an from loss. Compiling the scattered written pieces into a single volume safeguarded the revelation for future generations.
3. Differences in recitation among Muslims. As Islam spread to non-Arab lands, disputes arose over the different modes (ahruf) of recitation. Muslims in Armenia and Azerbaijan quarrelled, prompting Hudhayfah to warn ‘Uthman.
4. To unite the Ummah on one reading. ‘Uthman had a standard copy prepared from Abu Bakr's compilation, based on the dialect of the Quraysh in which it was revealed, to remove discord.
5. To prevent doubt, distortion and confusion. A single authoritative text closed the door to alteration, addition or corruption of the sacred book.
6. To spread a uniform text throughout the Muslim world. ‘Uthman sent official copies to the major cities (Makkah, Kufah, Basrah, Syria) and ordered other variant manuscripts to be burnt, ensuring one Qur’an everywhere.
7. To ease teaching and learning. A standardized script and arrangement of chapters made the Qur’an easier to teach, learn and reference across the expanding Muslim community.

Through this effort the Qur’an has been preserved intact and uniform to this day, fulfilling Allah's promise: "Indeed We have sent down the Reminder and We shall surely guard it" (Q15:9).

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Jihad literally means to strive or exert effort. In Islam it means striving in the way of Allah to establish good and repel evil. It is not confined to fighting; it has several types:

1. Jihad an-Nafs (striving against the self). This is the struggle to purify oneself, to obey Allah, perform acts of worship and restrain the soul from its evil desires. The Prophet called returning from battle to this struggle the "greater jihad".
2. Jihad ash-Shaytan (striving against Satan). Resisting the whisperings and temptations of Satan by strengthening faith and doing righteous deeds.
3. Jihad bil-Lisan (striving with the tongue). Spreading the message of Islam, preaching, teaching, calling to good and forbidding evil, and speaking a word of truth before a tyrant.
4. Jihad bil-Mal (striving with wealth). Spending one's lawful wealth in the cause of Allah, such as funding da‘wah, helping the needy and supporting the community.
5. Jihad bil-‘Ilm / bil-Qalam (striving with knowledge and the pen). Writing, learning and teaching to defend and propagate Islam and refute falsehood.
6. Jihad bil-Yad (striving with the hand). Changing evil by action where one has the ability and authority.
7. Jihad al-Qital / bis-Sayf (armed struggle). Fighting in defence of Islam, the Muslim land, life, honour and religion against aggression, under proper authority and rules. This is the "lesser jihad".

All these forms aim at pleasing Allah, establishing justice and defending the faith. Allah says: "And strive for Allah with the striving due to Him" (Q22:78).